Elsevier

Aggression and Violent Behavior

Volume 16, Issue 6, November–December 2011, Pages 503-511
Aggression and Violent Behavior

Mean girls and bad boys: Recent research on gender differences in conduct disorder

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2011.06.001Get rights and content

Abstract

Research on conduct disorder has historically used primarily male samples. More recently, researchers have made an effort to include female participants. This article examines research published between the years of 2000 and 2011, providing a review of similarities and differences in development and expression of conduct disorder across gender. Many contextual variables, such as negative parenting and impoverished environment, appear to serve as risk factors for both males and females. Girls with conduct disorder differ from boys in associations with internalizing disorders and temperamental variables. Implications for theory and treatment are discussed. Methodological issues and potential ways to improve upon the current body of literature are addressed.

Highlights

► Review of recent research on gender differences in conduct disorder. ► Gender differences found in relation to psychological and physiological variables. ► Similarities in contextual variables across gender. ► Strengths and weaknesses in research methodology. ► Implications for conceptualization, research, and treatment.

Section snippets

Conduct disorder

The American Psychiatric Association (APA, 2000) defines conduct disorder (CD) as a continuing pattern of behavioral disregard for the rights of others and social norms for acceptable conduct. Lying, cruelty towards humans or animals, noncompliance with caregiver rules, and truancy are examples of behaviors included in the CD symptom profile. Onset of the first symptom either prior to or following age ten is used to distinguish a childhood onset from an adolescent onset type (APA, 2000).

Gender and the development of antisocial behavior

The influence of gender on the development of an antisocial behavioral repertoire has been examined. Physical aggression can be viewed as a primary component of an antisocial behavioral pattern (Kazdin, 1987). Baillargeon et al. (2007) compared physical aggression across gender among 2940 children followed from 17 to 29 months of age using caretaker reports. Children were classified into low, medium, or high physical aggression groups; gender differences were already apparent at 17 months of age

Parenting variables in CD development

Parenting variables have also been argued to shape the antisocial behavioral repertoire underlying CD (Patterson et al., 1989). The relationship between parenting variables and social deviance has been studied in a sample of 52 adolescent girls with CD who were compared to 41 matched controls. Pajer et al. (2008) administered a computerized structured diagnostic interview assessing youth pathology to youth and parents, administered a structured interview assessing parental psychopathology,

Role of broader environment in CD development

Conduct disorder has been examined within a sample of 303 high-risk youth who met CD criteria and were also using public services (McCabe, Rodgers, Yeh, & Hough, 2004). Child and parent report data on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), CD, youth traumatic exposure, parental monitoring of youth, psychopathology, and youth functional impairment were collected. Gender differences in CD prevalence or parental reports of youth functional impairment were not present within this

Temperamental variables in CD development

Temperamental characteristics that confer risk for CD development have been examined in a sample of 1529 children of Quebec, followed from Kindergarten to sixth grade, using teacher and/or parent reports. Information on child hyperactivity, fearfulness, helpfulness towards others, and antisocial behavior was gathered, and a youth diagnostic interview administered in adolescence. Boys who were hyperactive, fearful, or unhelpful, or a combination of these categories were at a greater risk for

CD comorbidity across gender

Past research has found that CD is commonly comorbid with a number of other psychological difficulties. Notably, poor impulse control can characterize both CD and a number of other diagnoses. For example, ADHD has been found to be highly comorbid with CD, with prevalence rates of 58.7% for CD boys and 56.3% for CD girls among children, and 30.5% among CD male and 37.0% among CD female adolescents (Loeber & Keenan, 1994). Lack of gender differences in comorbidity with these difficulties suggests

Differences in underlying temperamental and physiological variables

Several temperamental variables have been related to the development of an antisocial behavioral repertoire, including decreased fear and autonomic response to punishment or threat of punishment, and psychopathic personality traits. In addition to criminality, psychopathy emphasizes affective deficits in ability to feel guilt or empathy for others and interpersonal deficits in ability to form lasting relationships and respect the rights of others, similarly to the construct of CU traits (Hare,

Functional impact of gender differences in CD

Researchers have argued that gender specific criteria are needed to adequately capture the manifestation of CD among females (Zoccolillo, 1993). Specific diagnostic criteria can be validated through a demonstration of the ability to differentiate youth with and without a disorder. Gender appropriateness of DSM-IV CD criteria were examined by Gelhorn et al. (2009) in a large sample of 3208 adolescents (49.8% female) with an item response theory analysis of specific symptom function among

Summary of recent CD research

Consistent with research prior to the time period reviewed (2000–2011), contemporary studies indicated that CD and engagement in externalizing behaviors continue to be more prevalent among males. Males have been found to be exhibit greater aggression than females from a very young age, suggesting either a biological predisposition, a greater social acceptability of male aggression, or the combination of the two (Baillargeon et al., 2007). Recent research suggests that girls who develop CD

Methodology

Research on CD would benefit from addressing several common methodological issues. Although recent research has made a greater effort to include female participants, many studies continue to use primarily male convenience samples. Survey and interview methodology constitute primary methods of data collection, making findings subject to the effects of reporter bias (which are likely to be replete within this population). Several studies within this review, for example, assessed parenting

Theoretical Implications

Despite methodological issues noted earlier, several conceptual implications concerning the development of CD across gender can be gleaned from the collective progress of literature in the past decade. Conduct disorder can be conceptualized from a behavior analytic perspective, which fits within the purview of evidence-based treatments for the disorder (e.g., Henggeler, Cunningham, Schoenwald, Borduin, & Rowland, 2009). It is possible, for example, to view variables related to contextual

Implications for treatment

Future examination of gender discrepant variables discussed would add not only to the understanding of etiology and course, but also treatment, of CD. Lower prevalence of CD among girls, for example, suggests that protective factors (decreased acceptance of female engagement in physical aggression for example) present among females may be used to develop interventions to decrease disorder prevalence among males. Deliberately altering social environments in accord with these recent

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