Intersectionality between parenting styles, area of residence and gender on food group consumption among Costa Rican adolescents

Abstract

Little is known about how parenting styles can influence the adolescent’s consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB), fruits and vegetables (FV) and beans in Latin America. This study uses hierarchical moderated regression models to examine such association by area of residence, sex of the parent and of the adolescent in Costa Rica. Results showed that fathers' authoritarian style was significantly associated with lower intake of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) among boys (b = -0.163, p = 0.050), but not girls (b = 0.097, p = 0.114) while mother's authoritarian style was associated with lower SSB intake among girls (b = -0.138, p = 0.031), but not boys (b = 0.159, p = 0.059). Fathers’ authoritative style was associated with higher consumption of fruits and vegetables (FV) among boys in rural areas (b=0.440, p= 0.017), but this association was not significant for girls (b=-0.033, p= 0.800) in rural areas or for either gender in urban areas. Parenting styles of the mothers' and fathers' were not significantly associated with Costa Rican adolescent bean consumption, in general or for any of the subgroups. Findings suggest an intersectionality in the effects of parentchild interactions by child and parent sex, cultural and geographic context, and the eating behaviors examined.

Introduction

The family environment, often measured by dimensions of cohesion, support, or conflict between its members, is considered a critical context for the development of healthy behaviors among adolescents (Carbert, Brussoni, Geller J., & Mâ; Gubbels, 2020; Hebestreit et al., 2017). Within the family environment, parenting styles that define the general emotional climate for parent-adolescent interactions appear to have a significant impact on the development of healthy eating behaviors (Darling & Steinberg, 1993) (Carbert, Brussoni, Geller J., & Mâ; Haines et al., 2016; Kremers, Brug, de Vries, & Engels, 2003; Viner et al., 2012). Parenting is a global concept often categorized into different styles: authoritative (high responsiveness to, and high demandingness of, youth), authoritarian (low responsiveness and high demandingness), and permissive (high responsiveness and low demandingness) (Baumrind, 1991). Authoritative parenting styles have been associated with healthier weights and better diets in youths, whereas authoritarian and permissive parenting styles have been associated with unhealthy eating (Berge, Wall, Neumark-Sztainer, Larson, & Story, 2010; Shloim, Edelson, Martin, & Hetherington, 2015; Zhang, Davey, Larson, & Reicks, 2019). Parenting styles may change according to the emotional climate (assigned norms, attitudes, beliefs, and values) in which parents and adolescents interact (Chan, Bowes, & Wyver, 2009; Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Shahsavari, 2012).

The contextual culture seems to be important for defining family environment and parenting styles. Parenting styles were originally conceptualized according to Euro-American white, middle-class family values, cultural norms, and parental expectations (Baumrind, 1966). However, while Euro-American families prefer horizontal organizational structures (Kagitcibasi, 2005), whereas in other cultures, such as Latin America, family relationships are often guided by a hierarchical or vertical organizational structure where elders and parents hold maximum authority roles (Arredondo, Gallardo-Cooper, & Delgado-Romero, 2015) with higher reported levels of family cohesion (Halgunseth, Ispa, & Rudy, 2006). Compared to Euro-American families, Latin American parents generally have more rules and stricter expectations regarding activities outside the home (Halgunseth et al., 2006). Given these diverse social and cultural contexts, parenting styles may differ and have distinct repercussions on eating outcomes among children (Arredondo et al., 2006; Domènech Rodriguez, Donovick, & Crowley, 2009).

Parenting styles may also vary depending on the intersectionality context, or in other words, from the interactions of different factors and social dynamics operating together within a context (Kapilashrami & Hankivsky, 2018). For example, studies in South Asian and Middle East countries suggest that the authoritarian style is more prevalent in urban areas, while the authoritative style is more pervasive in rural areas (Sondhi, 2017; Mayuri, Divya, & Kiran, 2015; Dwairy & Menshar, 2006, Dwairy et al., 2006). Even within the same urban or rural environment, parenting styles may depend on the child's sex, according to the cultural context in which the parent-child dyad socializes. (Dwairy & Menshar, 2006; Dwairy et al., 2006; Mayuri et al., 2015; Sondhi, 2017). Another factor contributing to intersectionality within a context is the sex of the parents and their interaction with the children according to their sex. Mothers and fathers may adopt different parenting styles based on the children's sex, according to role theory, with mothers in general being observed to be authoritative compared to fathers, who tend to assume an authoritarian style (Conrade & Ho, 2001; McKinney & Renk, 2008; Simons & Conger, 2007). Further, the authoritarian style is more likely adopted when parenting sons, while the authoritative style tends to be used with daughters (Conrade & Ho, 2001; McKinney & Renk, 2008; Simons & Conger, 2007). Nonetheless, despite these studies within different cultures, very little is known about how parenting styles may vary depending on the context of intersectionality in Latin America.

In view of the increasing consumption of unhealthy foods at the expense of more healthful options (i.e. fruits, vegetables, legumes) among Costa Rican adolescents in the last 20 years (Monge-Rojas, Vargas-Quesada, Chinnock, & Colón-Ramos, 2020), and the consequences that this may have on risk of adolescent obesity and the subsequent development of cardiometabolic diseases and related complications in adulthood (Lopes, Bressan, Peluzio, & Hermsdorff, 2019), there is a critical need to understand how interactions of different socioedemographic factors may be associated with parenting styles and the consumption of healthful and unhealthful foods. This information is crucial to inform the development of programmatic strategies in public health nutrition to promote healthy eating among adolescents.

The objective of this study is to contribute to public health nutrition efforts in Costa Rica by examining the association between parenting styles, area of residence, parent and child sex on adolescent eating behaviors, specifically, intake of sugar-sweetened beverages, fruits and vegetables, and beans in Latin American adolescents.