Research reviewAcute exercise and subsequent energy intake. A meta-analysis☆
Highlights
► A meta-analysis of energy intake responses to acute exercise was performed. ► Absolute energy intake is unchanged after exercise, suggesting minimal compensation. ► Relative energy intake indicates an exercise-induced energy deficit. ► Aerobic exercise may be best for inducing energy deficits with minimal compensation.
Introduction
Regular physical activity (PA) is an important component of overall health. PA is well known to improve cardiorespiratory fitness, blood pressure, and body composition, which are all negatively correlated with the risks of chronic disease (King, Hopkins, Caudwell, Stubbs, & Blundell, 2009). PA also plays a role in body weight regulation through its effects on energy expenditure and energy intake, providing a potential disruption to the energy balance equation (Martins, Morgan, & Truby, 2008). Despite this, the topic of how exercise precisely impacts energy intake and appetite regulation is quite controversial (Bilski, Teleglow, Zahradnik-Bilska, Dembinski, & Warzecha, 2009) and constantly evolving. Because exercise creates an energy deficit that may perturb homeostasis and hormone levels, the effects of exercise on energy intake are of interest.
It is known that the weight loss responses to exercise interventions are mixed. Some individuals show a marked weight loss and reduction in energy intake during an exercise intervention while others have been shown to lose less weight because of an increase in subjective feelings of hunger and, consequently, energy intake (King, Hopkins, Caudwell, Stubbs, & Blundell, 2008). Exercise may assist with weight loss by not only increased energy expenditure through the exercise bout itself, but also by altering perceptions of hunger and satiety in the hours after exercise. Furthermore, these perceptual changes may be partially explained by exercise-induced fluctuations of hormones related to energy balance and appetite regulation (Bilski et al., 2009, King, Caudwell, et al., 2009, Martins, Morgan, et al., 2007, Martins et al., 2007, Martins et al., 2008). Acute exercise bouts tend to suppress acylated ghrelin levels, a hormone that stimulates energy intake, while increasing levels of some satiety hormones such as peptide YY (PYY) and glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) (King, Miyashita, et al., 2010, King, Wasse, Ewens, et al., 2011, Larson-Meyer et al., 2012; Ueda, 2009a, 2009b).
The term “exercise-induced anorexia” was introduced to describe the reduction of perceived hunger that may be observed for a period of time after intense exercise (Blundell, Stubbs, Hughes, Whybrow, & King, 2003). Numerous studies, utilising intense exercise, have shown transient decreases in hunger after exercise (Broom et al., 2007, Pomerleau et al., 2004). However, it has been reported that changes in hunger do not always correlate with decreased food intake after exercise. Some authors have reported increased (Martins, Morgan, et al., 2007, Martins et al., 2007, Pomerleau et al., 2004, Shorten et al., 2009), no difference (Balaguera-Cortes et al., 2011, King, Wasse, et al., 2010), or decreased (Ueda et al., 2009b, Ueda et al., 2009a) energy intake at test meals offered 30 or more minutes post-exercise.
Given the somewhat mixed findings, it is important to systematically determine how acute bouts of exercise impact subsequent energy intake. Hence, the purpose of this study was to perform a meta-analysis to determine the efficacy of acute exercise for reducing energy intake. Understanding the influence of exercise mode, duration, and intensity will help to clarify the role of exercise in the manipulation of body composition via changes in post-exercise energy intake. Additionally, the results may help to inform future long-term weight management trials by describing those characteristics of acute exercise tasks that result in the greatest energy deficits.
Section snippets
Study selection and inclusion criteria
Major research databases (PubMed, Scopus, EBSCOHost, Google Scholar, Academic Search Premier, ScienceDirect, & SpringerLink) were searched up through July 2012. Keyword searches were performed for “exercise”, “physical activity”, “energy expenditure”, “energy intake”, “appetite”, “hunger”, and “food intake”. Potential studies were identified by examining the abstracts and full-text copies were obtained if they met the initial criteria of evaluating energy intake in response to an acute exercise
Overview
Figure 1 presents the decision tree of study selection. In total, 29 studies were included in the meta-analysis. All studies, except one dissertation, were published in peer-reviewed, scientific journals. In summary, the experimental trials within the studies were conducted over the course of several hours, and generally began with either a standardised breakfast meal (providing either an absolute amount of energy or a set relative amount of CHO, set as g kg−1 body mass) or a bout of exercise.
Discussion
The impact of acute exercise on energy intake has been examined by many studies in the literature, but data are relatively equivocal and have not been previously collated. The purpose of this study was to perform a meta-analysis to determine the efficacy of acute exercise for reducing energy intake. Despite considerable variability in protocol and analytical methods between the studies, there was no meaningful change in absolute energy intake in response to an acute bout of exercise (∼200 kJ).
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Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank several authors of papers cited in this work for their assistance in obtaining data, particularly Kym Guelfi and David Stensel and his students. We would also like to thank the reviewers for their excellent comprehensive reviews and suggestions that improved the manuscript.