Parents modelling, peer influence and peer selection impact on adolescent smoking behavior: A longitudinal study in two age cohorts

Highlights

• A three years longitudinal study based in two Portuguese adolescent cohorts.

• Parents' modelling effect on adolescent smoking behavior was not consistent.

• Peer influence and peer selection had an impact on adolescent smoking behavior.

• Peer influence and peer selection effects changed according to adolescent age.

• A developmental approach is relevant to explain adolescent smoking behavior.

Abstract

Understanding the key factors that influence smoking behavior, especially during adolescence, has a meaningful impact on public health. This study examined the impact of parent modelling, peer influence and peer selection on adolescent smoking behavior in two Portuguese cohorts followed for three years.

A questionnaire was delivered in classes and schools randomly selected, three times, one per year (cohort1: time1-7th, time2-8th, time3-9th; cohort2: time1-10th, time2-11th, time3-12th graders).

The sample included a total of 656 students (402 younger [time1 Mage = 13.17, SD = 0.53, 63.7% girls;] and 254 older [time 1 Mage = 16.20, SD = 0.53, 65% girls]).

Longitudinal data were examined through an autoregressive cross-lagged model (ARCL). The model explained 35% of the variance in smoking behavior at T3 for the global sample (4% for the younger and 58% for the older).

Over time, in both cohorts, the percentage of never smokers decreased sharply and the percentage of regular smokers increased rapidly. We observed that participants in the older cohort had higher chances of smoking if their parents smoked. Nevertheless, we did not find a parental modelling effect in the longitudinal model. Peer influence and peer selection influenced smoking behavior. However, peer selection influenced the youngest group, both processes influenced the middle age group, and only peer influence influenced the oldest. Best friend and friends had a stronger impact on the younger while friends and same grade students had a stronger impact on the older. Prevention programs should regard these differences of interpersonal influences through adolescent development and specific strategies for different age groups should be considered.

Introduction

Smoking continues to be a leading cause of preventable death and disease (Carters & Byrne, 2013; WHO, 2013;2015). Most smokers started to smoke during adolescence, more than 60% initiated before the age of 18 years old, many became addicted after smoking a few cigarettes (USDHHS, 1994, 2012; Duncan, Tildesley, Duncan, & Hops, 1995; Vitória, Kremers, Mudde, Pais Clemente, & De Vries, 2006). Preventing smoking initiation and regular smoking during adolescence is a highly relevant public health challenge.

Social learning theory developed the concept of social modelling which refers to the perceived behavior of others as a central source of influence in the observer's behavior (Bandura, 1977, Bandura, 1986). Research indicates that a relevant factor on adolescents smoking is parents and peer influences (e.g., USDHHS, 1994, 2012; Vitória, Salgueiro, Silva, & de Vries, 2009; Vitória, Salgueiro, Silva, & de Vries, 2011; Haas & Schaefer, 2014).

The importance of parents modelling on adolescents smoking behavior is well established (e.g., Avenevoli & Merikangas, 2003; Bricker et al., 2006; Bricker, Peterson, Sarason, Andersen, & Rajan, 2007; De Vries, Engles, Kremers, Wetzels, & Mudde, 2003; Harakeh et al., 2010; Mercken, Sleddens, De Vries, & Steglich, 2013). For example, Leonardi-Bee, Jere, and Britton (2011) found an increased risk of smoking uptake in childhood and adolescence when at least one parent smokes, and this risk increased almost threefold when both parents smoke.

On the other hand, several studies have demonstrated the association between the smoking behavior of peers and individual smoking, such that having friends who smoke increases the probability of becoming a smoker (e.g., Ali & Dwyer, 2009; De Vries et al., 2003; Defoe, Dubas, Somerville, Lugtig, & van Aken, 2016; Mcdonough, Jose, & Stuart, 2016; Mercken, Candel, Willems, & de Vries, 2009; Mercken, Snijders, Steglich, Vartiainen, & De Vries, 2010). However, according to Kobus (2003), the role of peer influence has been overestimated and two of the reasons were the use of cross-sectional studies and limitations on data analysis that not reach more in-depth influence processes.

There is a body of evidence suggesting another process with impact on smoking behavior which is the similarity among peers and the selection of friends process (Ennett & Bauman, 1994; Go, Green Jr, Kennedy, Pollard, & Tucker, 2010; Hoffman, Monge, Chou, & Valente, 2007; Kobus, 2003; Mercken, Candel, et al., 2009; Steglich, Snijders, & Pearson, 2010; Urberg, Degirmencioglu, & Pilgrim, 1997; Urberg, Luo, Pilgrim, & Degirmencioglu, 2003). Peer selection occurs when adolescents choose their friends based on similar behavior during friendship formation (Ennett et al., 2006; Mercken, Candel, et al., 2009; Mercken, Snijders, Steglich, & de Vries, 2009). Several studies have demonstrated the importance of this process, showing a tendency for young people to select their friends based on smoking behavior similarities (Go et al., 2010; Mathys, Burk, & Cillessen, 2013; Mercken et al., 2010; Mercken, Candel, et al., 2009; Seo & Huang, 2012). In fact, most of the studies comparing peer influence against peer selection argue for the importance and impact of both (Ennett & Bauman, 1994; Green Jr. et al., 2013; Huang, Soto, Fujimoto, & Valente, 2014; Lakon, Hipp, Wang, Butts, & Jose, 2015; Osgood, Feinberg, & Ragan, 2015; Seo & Huang, 2012; Wang, Hipp, Butts, Jose, & Lakon, 2016). In this sense, it is increasingly important to identify the specific contribution of peer influence and peer selection processes on smoking behavior during adolescence and how these contributions evolve and change over time and according adolescent age. Furthermore, to improve insight into how peers influence adolescent smoking behavior, it may be interesting to broke down the concept of peers and to examine influences from best friend, friends and same grade students (e.g., Fujimoto & Valente, 2012; Vitória et al., 2006).

The present study aims to examine the role of parent modelling, peer influence and peer selection simultaneously and longitudinally in two cohorts of Portuguese adolescents followed for three years. Concerning the impact of social influence on smoking behavior across adolescence, the number of studies adopting a longitudinal approach is scarce and more longitudinal studies are much needed (Villanti, Boulay, & Juon, 2011). Regarding previous research published on Portuguese adolescents smoking behavior (e.g. Vitória et al., 2009, Vitória et al., 2011), this study extends the age and grades range, including a new cohort of older participants, intending to observe both main processes of smoking behavior during adolescence: smoking initiation and smoking consolidation. This study was based in a sample of Portuguese adolescents stratified by region, while the others were based in a sample of adolescents from schools near Lisbon, the main urban area of Portugal.

This study has three main goals. The first is to describe the smoking behavior of participants. The second is to explore, simultaneously and longitudinally, the processes of parents modelling and of peers (best friend, friends and same grade students) influence and selection, to better understand adolescent smoking behavior. The third goal is to examine if the impact of these processes differs based on age in these two cohorts (developmental differences).