Indicated prevention for incoming freshmen: Personalized normative feedback and high-risk drinking

Abstract

This research evaluated the efficacy of a computerized, freshmen-specific personalized normative feedback (PNF) intervention on reducing alcohol consumption among high-risk drinking freshmen. Students (N = 316; 53.8% female) completed measures of perceived drinking norms and drinking behavior. After completing the baseline assessment, students were randomly assigned to receive either freshmen-specific PNF that was gender-specific or gender-neutral, or to assessment only control. Findings demonstrated that students exhibited normative misperceptions for typical freshmen drinking behavior and that perceptions of typical same-sex freshmen drinking were positively associated with riskier drinking behavior. At follow-up, students randomly assigned to receive PNF reduced perceptions of typical freshmen drinking behavior and personal drinking behavior relative to those who did not receive PNF. Findings extend previous evaluations of computer-based PNF and suggest that computer-based PNF for incoming freshmen utilizing freshmen-specific norms that are gender-specific may constitute a promising prevention strategy.

Introduction

Alcohol abuse and related negative consequences continue to be problematic for college students (Hingson et al., 2005, Hingson et al., 2002, O'Malley and Johnston, 2002), particularly for freshmen (Baer et al., 1995, Grekin and Sher, 2006, Ichiyama and Kruse, 1998, Thompson et al., 2006, Turrisi et al., 2000). Social norms approaches (i.e., social norms marketing and personalized normative feedback) that aim to reduce college student drinking rest on the premise that reduction in perceptions of peer drinking behavior will result in reductions in personal drinking behavior (Perkins, 2002). Prior research has demonstrated personalized normative feedback (PNF) to be effective at reducing drinking behavior among college students as a stand alone intervention (Lewis and Neighbors, 2007, Neighbors et al., 2004, Neighbors et al., 2006). Research on PNF has recently begun to focus on the potential to increase efficacy of PNF by examining specificity of the normative referent employed (Lewis & Neighbors, 2007). The present study continues this line of research, as it evaluated the efficacy of freshmen-specific PNF for heavy-drinking incoming freshmen.

Freshmen are a subgroup of the college student population that is particularly at risk for problematic drinking and its consequences (Baer et al., 1995, Grekin and Sher, 2006, Ichiyama and Kruse, 1998, Thompson et al., 2006, Turrisi et al., 2000). For example, Turrisi et al. (2000) found that freshmen consumed larger amounts of alcohol than their upper-class peers did. Moreover, Thompson et al. (2006) found that freshmen were more likely to be arrested for an alcohol-related offense than were upper-class students. In a sample of freshmen at a private university, Ichiyama and Kruse (1998) found that over half reported at least one episode of heavy-drinking (defined as 5 drinks in one sitting) compared to the national average of 40–44%. In addition, Grekin and Sher (2006) found that freshmen showed alcohol dependence symptoms at higher rates than the general adult population.

Freshmen may be particularly at-risk for alcohol abuse and negative consequences due to the transition from high school to college (Baer et al., 1995, Schulenberg and Maggs, 2002). For instance, Schulenberg and Maggs (2002) found that drinking tends to escalate during transitions related to increased independence and decreased parental guidance and support. Furthermore, longitudinal research confirms that on average students who drank in high school increase their drinking quantities and frequencies upon entering college (Baer et al., 1995).

Perceptions of peer drinking norms have been associated with heavy-drinking and experiencing negative consequences (Borsari & Carey, 2001). Moreover, research has found this to be especially true for gender-specific norms (Lewis & Neighbors, 2004). Gender-specific norms are comprised of same-sex norms and opposite-sex norms. Perceived same-sex norms are perceptions of typical drinking behavior by same-sex peers (i.e., men's perceptions of men's drinking quantity and frequency and women's perceptions of women's drinking quantity and frequency). Perceived opposite-sex norms are perceptions of typical drinking behavior by opposite-sex peers (i.e., men's perceptions of women's drinking quantity and frequency and women's perceptions of men's drinking quantity and frequency). Lewis and Neighbors (2004) found that perceived same-sex norms were more strongly related to personal drinking behavior when compared to opposite-sex norms. Social psychological theories suggest that normative comparisons should increase in importance as specificity or proximity of the normative referent increases (i.e., Social Comparison Theory, Festinger, 1954; Social Impact Theory, Latane, 1981). For freshmen, perceived peer drinking norms may be particularly salient because a large number of freshmen live together on campus in residence halls and are greatly exposed to peers' drinking behavior. Normative perceptions for freshmen should be especially important when evaluating drinking behavior, as it represents a more proximal referent; furthermore, this should be especially true if norms are also specific to one's gender.

Recent reviews on brief interventions for college student drinking identified personalized feedback as a common component (Larimer and Cronce, 2002, Walters and Bennett, 2000, Walters and Neighbors, 2005). Personalized feedback components varied in content, providing information on one's drinking, risk factors, and normative comparisons (Walters & Neighbors, 2005). Feedback on normative comparisons (i.e., PNF) has been shown to be effective at reducing heavy-drinking behavior as part of a multi-component intervention (Marlatt et al., 1998, Murphy et al., 2001, Murphy et al., 2004) and as a stand alone intervention (Lewis and Neighbors, 2007, Neighbors et al., 2004, Neighbors et al., 2006).

Recent research has begun to explore methods by which efficacy of PNF can be enhanced, with a focus on increasing specificity of the normative referent employed (Lewis & Neighbors, 2007). Lewis and Neighbors (2007) evaluated specificity of the normative referent by comparing PNF that presented gender-neutral normative comparisons versus PNF that presented gender-specific normative comparisons. Their findings indicated that gender-specific PNF was more effective for women who more strongly identified with their gender. The present research was unique from previous research on PNF efficacy, in that freshmen-specific norms were utilized in combination with gender-specificity. Thus, PNF presented gender-neutral normative comparisons for freshmen or gender-specific normative comparisons for freshmen. Because PNF that is gender-specific presents a normative comparison that is specific on two levels (i.e., freshmen and gender) compared to gender-neutral PNF, which only presents a normative comparison that is specific on one level (i.e., freshmen), we expected that gender-specific PNF would be more effective than gender-neutral PNF for freshmen.

Based on the above considerations, we had two hypotheses related to normative misperceptions: 1) students would demonstrate normative misperceptions for both gender-neutral and gender-specific norms (i.e., same-sex and opposite-sex norms) for freshmen; 2) same-sex gender-specific norms for freshmen would be more strongly related to personal behavior in comparison to gender-neutral or opposite-sex gender-specific norms for freshmen. Related to the PNF intervention, we expected that freshmen gender-specific PNF would be more effective than freshmen gender-neutral PNF in terms of reducing drinking behavior and normative misperceptions for gender-neutral and gender-specific freshmen norms. Finally, we expected that changes in normative misperceptions for gender-neutral and gender-specific freshmen norms would result in reduced drinking behavior for those who received PNF.