Cognitive control in context: Working memory capacity and proactive control
Introduction
The notion of cognitive control has been invoked to explain performance in a number of activities. Broadly defined, cognitive control is the set of mental processes by which information is maintained in a temporary format to guide behavior towards task success, especially if there are competing alternative actions that could be selected instead of the desired target behavior. Braver, Gray, & Burgess (2007) (see also Braver, 2012) proposed a mechanistic account that attempts to synthesize the cognitive control literature. Specifically, their dual-mechanism theory of cognitive control provides a framework for understanding both person- and task-related variations in controlled behavior. Their model is also influenced by knowledge of neurotransmitter and neuroanatomical properties of the human cortex observed in both typical and atypical biological functioning. The current research sought to apply Braver et al.'s model to cognitive control variation observed in individuals varying in working memory capacity (WMC). More specifically, (a) do individuals high in WMC use proactive control to anticipate and prepare a response more often than low-WMC individuals, and (b) do high-WMC individuals adjust their use of proactive control based on the predictive nature of the cue-related information?
Section snippets
Executive-attention theory of working memory capacity
Engle and colleagues (Engle and Kane, 2004, Kane et al., 2007, Unsworth and Engle, 2007) have provided evidence that performance on complex working memory span tasks is predictive of behavior in a variety of situations. In a typical complex span task, such as Operation Span (Unsworth, Heitz, Schrock, & Engle, 2005), subjects must mentally solve math problems while also remembering letters for later recall. Variation in the ability to complete these types of tasks is used to measure individual
The dual-mechanism theory of cognitive control
While the executive-attention theory has been examined using young adults varying in WMC, Braver et al. (Braver et al., 2005, Braver et al., 2007) proposed the dual-mechanism theory of cognitive control initially to account for cognitive aging deficits. The theory derives its name from the two modes of control that are assumed to be responsible for flexible, goal-driven behavior. Proactive control involves the active maintenance of information that will help to respond appropriately to upcoming
Individual differences in WMC as variation in proactive control
Across multiple studies (Braver et al., 2009, Braver et al., 2001, Braver et al., 2005, Paxton et al., 2008, Paxton et al., 2006), older adults' performance on the AX-CPT-70 was consistent with reactive control (spared AY performance in either errors or correct RTs relative to young adults, but impaired BX performance), while the young adult groups exhibited performance consistent with engaging in proactive control (fast and accurate AX and BX performance). In addition, Braver et al. (2007)
Current research
Despite the evidence just reviewed, there are still several unanswered questions in regard to how individual differences in WMC are related to the use of proactive control. Redick and Engle (2011) examined how the length of cue-probe interval affected high- and low-WMC individuals' AX-CPT-70 performance. In the current research, young adults who had been previously classified as high- or low-WMC were tested on three different versions of the AX-CPT. I manipulated the proportion of AX trials to
Subjects
All subjects were between 18 and 30 years of age. Out of 122 young adults that completed the study, 60 high- and 60 low-WMC individuals were included in the final sample, with 20 high- and 20 low-WMC subjects in each version of the AX-CPT. One low-WMC subject in the AX-CPT-70 and one low-WMC subject in the AX-CPT-40 was classified as an outlier due to extremely low accuracy on AX trials, which led to an overall accuracy on probe trials of less than 70%. Trial type frequencies were manipulated
Accuracy comparison within each AX-CPT version
The full omnibus ANOVA output is provided in Table A.1. The three-way interaction was significant, F(6, 342) = 4.03, p = .001, partial η2 = .066, and follow-up analyses were conducted by examining performance separately for each level of Version and subsequently for each level of WMC to decompose this interaction.
Discussion
Across three experiments, the accuracy analyses produced several significant effects involving WMC. The analyses indicated that, compared to high-WMC individuals, low-WMC individuals made more: (a) AX errors on the AX-CPT-70, AX-CPT-10, and AX-CPT-40; and (b) BX errors on the AX-CPT-70 and AX-CPT-40. That is, across the various versions of the AX-CPT, the significant WMC differences in accuracy occurred when the probe decision involved the letter X. In all task versions, correctly responding to
Conclusion
The current research investigated individual differences in WMC in relation to the use of proactive control to maintain and translate cognition into preparatory action. The results indicated that high-WMC individuals are more likely than low-WMC individuals to use information conveyed by a cue to prepare a response in advance, especially when the cue information is predictive of subsequent action. In contrast, the performance of the low-WMC individuals was less dependent upon the cue and more
Acknowledgments
Thomas S. Redick, Purdue University.
This research was completed in partial fulfillment of the author's requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Georgia Institute of Technology. I thank the dissertation committee members (Randy Engle, Paul Corballis, Eric Schumacher, Dan Spieler, and David Washburn) for their helpful guidance throughout the project. I also thank Nash Unsworth, Whitney Hansen, Todd Braver, Gregory Burgess, Nelson Cowan, and the members of the Georgia Tech
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