Original articleThe relationship among violence victimization, witnessing violence, and youth distress☆
Section snippets
Design
This study was a cross-sectional survey utilizing baseline data gathered from youth who were recruited to participate in a randomized, controlled, community-based violence prevention effectiveness trial. Participants were 349 adolescents, 96% of whom were African-American, between the ages of 9 and 15 years, who resided in any of 10 low-income public housing communities in an East Coast city. Recruitment and enrollment took place within each community after school on weekdays and during
Results
A total of 349 youth, 96% of whom were African-American, were identified for inclusion in the statistical analyses. Baseline measures were completed by 196 males and 153 females. Youth median age was 12 years; mean grade level and family size were about six and five, respectively. A more thorough discussion of this sample is presented elsewhere [27].
Analysis of variance was used to compare younger and older youth on a range of study variables. Younger adolescents were significantly more likely
Discussion
This article explored the relationship between exposure to community violence, specifically victimization and witness experiences, and distress symptomatology among a community sample of young African-Americans. The results suggest that increasing levels of environmental exposure to violence are associated with increasing amounts of self-reported distress. Several studies reported in the literature support this relationship 9, 20, 22. Pynoos et al. [20] and Pynoos and Nader [24] demonstrated a
Study limitations
In determining the validity and generalizability of study results, consideration must be given to how variables were operationalized. First, the psychometric properties of the exposure and distress scales have been incompletely determined 8, 22, 27. Second, items that concerned contextual qualities regarding the violent encounter, such as location and relationship to perpetrator or victim, were not examined. As a result, whether domestic or community violence is the more important factor in the
Conclusion
Owing to the pervasiveness of violence in many inner-city communities and its potential effects among children and adolescents, the consequences from such exposure is an important public health concern, deserving attention in the field of pediatric and adolescent research. Violence has not only direct consequences, by placing children in harm’s way, but also immediate and potentially long-term detrimental effects on the emotional and social development of children. Attention must be focused on
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the entire Neighborhoods in Action team without whose efforts this research would not have been possible. In particular, we thank the parents, youth, and public housing staff who participated in the Neighborhoods in Action project.
References (41)
- et al.
A comparison of inner-city and upper-middle class youths’ exposure to violence
J Adolesc Health
(1992) - et al.
The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African American youth
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry
(1993) - et al.
Violence in American citiesYoung black males are the answer, but what was the question?
Soc Sci Med
(1994) - et al.
Concordance among urban African American parent-youth dyadsRelationship to youth perpetration of violence, distress symptomatology and psychosocial functioning
J Adolesc Health
(1999) - et al.
Prevention of peer and community violenceThe pediatrician’s role
Pediatrics
(1994) Understanding and controlling violence
J Health Care Poor Underserved
(1991)- et al.
New directions in violence predictionThe public health arena
Violence Vict
(1988) Setting the agenda for preventionSummary of the proceedings
Public Health Rep
(1991)- et al.
Violent crime in the United StatesAn epidemiologic profile
Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med
(1995) Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Predictors of youth violence
(2000)
The NIMH community violence project: I. Children as victims and witnesses to violence
Psychiatry
Traumatic stress and children
J Health Care Poor Underserved
Children in Danger. Coping With the Consequences of Community Violence
The effects of exposure to violence on young children
Am Psychol
Factors associated with the use of violence among urban black adolescents
Am J Public Health
Chronic exposure to violence and poverty: Interventions that work for youth
Crime Delinq
The Truly Disadvantaged. The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy
Community violence and children on Chicago’s Southside
Psychiatry
African American youth encounters with violenceResults from the Community Mental Health Council Violence Screening Project
J Black Stud
Children of ChowcillaStudy of psychic trauma
Psychoanal Study Child
Cited by (68)
Victimization and traumatic stress: Pathways to depressive symptoms among low-income, African-American girls
2018, Child Abuse and NeglectCitation Excerpt :In one study of 62 children (11–14 years old) living in a low-income community, approximately 90% had witnessed gunfire, 40% had witnessed a beating or a mugging, and 12% had witnessed a murder in their neighborhood (Trickett et al., 2011). Another study of 349 predominantly African-American youth growing up in low-income communities found that over two-thirds reported being both victims and witnesses of domestic or community violence (Howard, Feigelman, Li, Cross, & Rachuba, 2002). Taken together, these findings suggest that experiences of victimization and trauma may play a key role in the development of psychopathology among youth growing up in low-income communities.
Predicting violent behavior: The role of violence exposure and future educational aspirations during adolescence
2015, Journal of AdolescenceCitation Excerpt :For example, in a diverse sample of urban youth, those who were victims of violence reported lower levels of future expectations (O'Donnell, Schwab-Stone, & Muyeed, 2002). Howard, Feigelman, Li, Cross, and Rachuba (2002), however, found that victimization, but not witnessing violence was associated with despondency about the future (i.e., lack of hope for a long or happy life). Yet, our focus was on educational aspirations, which may be a particularly critical aspect of future orientation for lower income African-American youth, especially boys, who may disengage from school at higher rates than their White counterparts (National Center for Education Statistics, 2014; Roderick, 2003).
The effect of direct and indirect exposure to violence on youth survival expectations
2014, Journal of Adolescent HealthAdolescent exposure to violence and adult physical and mental health problems
2014, Child Abuse and NeglectCitation Excerpt :Turner, Finkelhor, and Ormrod (2006), using a predominantly African American sample, found that witnessing violence was associated with self-reported distress, but also found that most respondents (about 75%) reported both witnessing and being directly victimized by violence. Howard, Feigelman, Li, Cross, and Rachuba (2002) likewise found that personal victimization and witnessing violence were not mutually exclusive, as the majority of the sample reported both being victims and witnesses of violence. However, differences in distress symptoms were found among victims and witnesses.
Violence Exposure as a Predictor of Internalizing and Externalizing Problems Among Children of Substance Abusers
2013, Journal of Pediatric NursingCitation Excerpt :Exposure to violence alone can have significant negative effects on children. Children exposed to violence display increased levels of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Howard, Feigelman, Li, Cross, & Rachuba, 2002; Kitzmann, Gaylord, Holt, & Kenny, 2003), antisocial and risk taking behavior (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 1998; McKelvey, Whiteside-Mansell, Bradley, Casey, Conners-Burrow, & Barrett, 2011), and internalizing symptoms (Fitzgerald, McKelvey, Schiffman, & Montanez, 2006a; Fitzgerald, McKelvey, Schiffman, & Montanez, 2006b; McKelvey et al., 2011; Schwab-Stone, Chen, Greenberger, Silver, Lichtman, & Voyce, 1999). While the relationship between violence exposure and psychosocial outcomes has been demonstrated in general populations, there are few studies that examine the effects of violence exposure on COSAs.
- ☆
Support for this research was provided by the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research.