Age Norms, Institutional Structures, and the Timing of Markers of Transition to Adulthood

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Abstract

This chapter compares the timing and sequencing of educational completion and first parenthood for samples of U.S. youth and German women. We garner evidence bearing on two hypotheses. The first is that the timing of transition to parenthood is governed by age norms; the second, that this transition is influenced by the incentives posed by distinct school-to-work transition structures. We conclude that strongly institutionalized school-to-work bridges pose greater incentives for the completion of educational programs in Germany and more clearly regulate the timing of parenthood. The more loose connection between school and work in the United States encourages greater variation in the timing of parenthood, and more first births before schooling is complete.

Section snippets

The Transition to Adulthood in Germany and the United States

In Germany, movement into full-time work is structured by a highly regulated age-graded system of secondary and tertiary education and the institution of the apprenticeship (Hamilton, 1990; Hamilton & Hurrelmann, 1994; Heinz, 1999). This bridging system connects general schooling with occupational qualification and occupational qualification with the labor market. A less clearly differentiated educational structure and a general absence of institutional bridges from school to work characterize

Data Sources

Survey data were obtained from the U.S. youth development study (YDS) and from the female life course study of three cohorts of German women with vocational degrees. These data sets allow comparative assessment of the relationships between the completion of education, establishment in an occupational position, and the timing of the first birth.

Educational Completion and Attainment in the U.S. Sample

Pertinent to the institutional hypothesis, Table 1 indicates the attainment benefits associated with delayed educational completion among American youth in the YDS panel. Among those who completed their schooling at or before the age of 22, very few had obtained 4-year college degrees (no one who completed by age 18 and only 16% of those who completed between age 19 and 22). Among the later finishers (aged 23–24), 44% had obtained BA degrees. Of the latest finishers (aged 25–28), 37.5% had

Educational Completion and Attainment in the German Context

In the German educational system (see Fig. 1), school begins at age 6 or 7 and is followed by 4 years of elementary school. At the age of 10 and 11, children are divided into three school types. Those who attend the “Hauptschule” have 5 more years of general schooling. At the age of 15 or 16, they will seek and start apprenticeships. If their searches are immediately successful, they will finish by the age of 18 or 19. “Realschule” pupils go to school for 6 more years. At age 16 or 17 they will

Educational Completion and Parenthood in the U.S. Data

We now turn to our central focus, the association between the objective timing of educational completion and first parenthood in the two societies. If the timing of parenting were largely institutionally regulated, one would expect most cases of parenthood to follow educational completion in both countries. Table 4 presents a cross-tabulation of educational completion and age of first birth for youth in the YDS. Generally, parenthood occurs at later ages as the age of educational completion

Education–Work Bridges and Family Formation in Germany

The German female life course study documents striking effects of occupation-specific apprentice qualification on the female trajectories of work and family life. The strong effect of the educational/occupational qualification system on the subsequent female life course is evident in the timing of marriage and childbirth. It is especially noteworthy that only 11 of 1,665 women (0.7%) had children prior to the completion of their apprenticeships. Unlike in the American context, where almost one

Summary and Discussion

It is apparent that in both the United States and Germany the timing of educational completion (and vocational training) is rewarded by objective educational and occupational attainments. In general, youth in both societies who prolong their educations receive higher-level, or more diverse, credentials, yielding higher socioeconomic attainment later in life. Thus, in accord with the institutional structuring hypothesis, there are substantial incentives to avoid interrupting educational programs

Acknowledgments

The Youth Development Study is supported by grants (titled “Work Experience and Mental Health: A Panel Study of Youth”) from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD44138) and the National Institute of Mental Health (MH42843). The inspiration for this chapter came from work initiated while the first author was a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. She is grateful for support provided by the Center, as well as by the Hewlett Foundation and

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