The effects of postpartum depression on child development: A meta-analysis

doi:10.1016/S0883-9417(98)80004-6

Archives of Psychiatric Nursing

Volume 12, Issue 1, February 1998, Pages 12-20

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9417(98)80004-6 Get rights and content

The adverse, short-term effects of postpartum depression on maternal-infant interaction have been repeatedly documented. Are there long-term sequelae for children whose mothers had experienced postpartum depression? The purpose of this meta-analysis was to determine the magnitude of the effect of postpartum depression on the cognitive and emotional development of children older than the age of 1 year. Nine studies which met the sample criteria were included in this meta-analysis. Results indicated that postpartum depression had a small but significant effect on children's cognitive and emotional development. The r indicator for effect size ranged from .18 to .22 whereas the d indicator ranged from .36 to .45. Implications for future research are addressed.

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Prenatal and postnatal maternal psychological distress predicts various detrimental consequences on social, behavioral, and cognitive development of offspring, especially in girls. Maturation of white matter (WM) continues from prenatal development into adulthood and is thus susceptible to exposures both before and after birth.
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American Indian/Native Alaskan (AI/AN) mothers experience higher rates of postpartum depression than any other racial group in the United States. In addition, historical forced relocation and decimation of ancestral lands limit AI/AN mothers' access to quality personal or public transportation to access perinatal health care. This study used story inquiry, a decolonizing qualitative approach, to understand the impact of transportation on perinatal care and maternal mental health care access for Keetoowah mothers in Tahlequah, Oklahoma (N = 8). This study includes three themes: (1) transportation access and historical trauma; (2) perinatal health care and transportation, and (3) transportation access and affordability solutions.
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There is limited information regarding the intergenerational transmission of mental health among three generations (i.e., grandparents, parents, and children) of Black families. Given that intergenerational and kinship ties are integral in Black families, this study explores the context that might contribute to the generational transmission of mental health among Black families.
The present study examined the retrospective family history of mental health among fathers and mothers, current reports of their depression, and their children's internalizing and depressive symptoms among a sample of 2530 Black families from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study using waves 4 to 6. All analyses were conducted using STATA 15.1.
Focal children's maternal and paternal grandparents' history of mental health was associated with higher odds of depression in their mothers and fathers; in addition, child-internalizing symptoms were associated with a report of depression in maternal grandparents in waves 4 and 5. Children of mothers who were depressed had higher internalizing scores in waves 4, 5, and 6.
This descriptive study did not account for how parenting might also be protective against childhood internalizing behaviors. A retrospective account may not fully encapsulate a complete understanding of mental health patterns.
In treating the mental and behavioral health of Black families, it is essential to focus on multiple generations of family health, given that family history is the strongest predictor of the youth's onset of depression. The utility of these findings in understanding psychological distress and strengths among Black families is discussed.
The relationship between maternal psychopathology and offspring incontinence and constipation at school age: A prospective cohort study
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There is evidence for an association between maternal psychopathology and offspring incontinence and constipation, but it is unclear if there is a critical/sensitive period of exposure to maternal depression and/or anxiety in the antenatal or postnatal period.
Mothers from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children provided data on their depression and anxiety (antenatal and postnatal) and their child's urinary and faecal incontinence and constipation at age 7 (6489 participants). We used multivariable logistic regression to examine evidence for independent effects of maternal depression/anxiety on offspring incontinence/constipation and to investigate if there was a critical/sensitive period of exposure. We examined evidence for causal intra-uterine effects using a negative control design.
Postnatal maternal psychopathology was associated with an increased risk of offspring incontinence and constipation (e.g. postnatal anxiety and daytime wetting OR: 1.53; 95 % CI: 1.21–1.94). Data were consistent with a postnatal critical period model and there was evidence for an independent effect of maternal anxiety. Antenatal maternal psychopathology was associated with offspring constipation (e.g. antenatal anxiety OR: 1.57; 95 % CI: 1.25–1.98), but there was no evidence for a causal intra-uterine effect.
Attrition and maternal reports without use of diagnostic criteria for incontinence/constipation are potential limitations.
Children exposed to maternal postnatal psychopathology had a greater risk of incontinence/constipation, and maternal anxiety had stronger associations than depression. Health professionals should be vigilant to effects of maternal psychopathology on child development. Identification of mechanisms linking maternal psychopathology to child incontinence/constipation is required to inform evidence-based support.
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Parental anxiety has been associated with increased risk of emotional and behavioural problems for offspring, yet the differing impact of each parent is unclear. As emotional disorders continue to present a significant challenge to the health system and with the role of mothers and fathers changing over the past two decades, we sought to systematically review the available literature for an association between parental anxiety and offspring suboptimal outcomes.
A systematic review was conducted using the following databases: Ovid MEDLINE, Embase; PsycINFO and Google Scholar. Reference lists of the included papers were also searched. Data was analysed and grouped based on offspring age.
Eighteen studies were included in this review. Results suggest that both parents' mental health can impact negatively on the functioning of offspring, during infancy, childhood, and adolescence. This association is weak in infancy, with equivocal results, however the association in childhood appears robust for both mothers and fathers. In adolescence, the findings suggest that maternal anxiety may be more influential than paternal anxiety.
As the methodology of the included studies was heterogenous, and the timing of assessment varied across the papers, drawing concrete conclusions from the existing research is somewhat impaired.
Both mothers' and fathers' anxiety have the propensity to negatively impact on their child's development. Implementing preventative interventions, which include both parents, as well as systemic interventions, which include the whole family, are essential in stemming the intergenerational transmission of mental health problems within families.
Maternal antenatal depression's effects on child developmental delays: Gestational age, postnatal depressive symptoms, and breastfeeding as mediators
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Citation Excerpt :
Mothers who experience antenatal depression are more likely to have postnatal depression (Eastwood et al., 2017; Luoma et al., 2015). Like antenatal depression, postnatal depression has negative effects on child cognitive and social development (Beck, 1998; Claessens et al., 2015; Grace et al., 2003; Madigan et al., 2018). Although some studies control for postnatal depression when exploring the effects of antenatal depression on child development and vice versa (Deave et al., 2008; Evans et al., 2012; Koutra et al., 2013; Rotheram-Fuller et al., 2018), formal tests of mediation are rare (Ibanez et al., 2015).
Maternal antenatal depression experienced around conception or during pregnancy may adversely affect child development. This study explores three potential mechanisms of the effects of antenatal depression on children's developmental delays at 2–3 years: gestational age of the child, continued depressive symptoms postnatally, and interrupted breastfeeding practices.
Mothers (N = 2888) of 3450 children, including 2303 singletons and 1147 multiples from the Upstate KIDS cohort provided data. Linked hospital discharge data was combined with mothers' reports to identify women with moderate to severe antenatal depression. Gestational age was extracted from birth certificates. Mothers completed a depression screener at 4 months postpartum, reported about their breastfeeding practices from 4 to 12 months postpartum, and completed a developmental delay screener when children were 24, 30, and 36 months.
In unadjusted path analysis models, mothers with antenatal depression had more postnatal depressive symptoms and breastfed fewer months, which translated into children being more likely to have developmental delays. Gestational age was not a mediator. Effects were similar across girls and boys and singletons and twins, and largely held when adjusting for covariates.
Main limitations were the relatively advantaged sample and reliance on maternal report.
Maternal antenatal depression may impact child development through continued depressive symptoms in the postpartum period and through reduced breastfeeding duration suggesting additional targets for intervention.

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The effects of postpartum depression on child development: A meta-analysis

Psychological Bulletin

An inventory for measuring depression

Archives of General Psychiatry

The effects of postpartum depression on maternal-infant interaction: A meta-analysis

Nursing Research

A meta-analysis of the relationship between postpartum depression and infant temperament

Nursing Research

Maternal depression and the emotional development of the child

British Journal of Psychiatry

Postpartum depression and child development: An investigation of mothers and fathers as sources of risk and resilience

Development and Psychopathology

Impact of maternal postnatal depression on cognitive development of young children

British Medical Journal

Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences

Statistically combining independent studies: A meta-analysis of sex differences in conformity research

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Scientific guidelines for conducting integrative research reviews

Review of Educational Research

The integrative research review: A social science approach

Integrating research: A guide for literature reviews

Detection of postnatal depression: Development of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale

British Journal of Psychiatry

A diagnostic interview

The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia

Archives of General Psychiatry

A longitudinal study of maternal depression and child behaviour problems

Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry

The detection of psychiatric illness by questionnaire