IntroductionYouth violence: Developmental pathways and prevention challenges
Introduction
S everal school shootings during the past few years, most notably the mass murder–suicide at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado, have cast the spotlight on youth violence. School-associated violent deaths, however, are relatively rare events1 and more symptomatic of the much larger problem of youth violence in the United States. Homicide is the third leading cause of death for persons aged 5 to 14 years, the second leading cause of death for persons aged 15 to 24 years,2 and has been the leading cause of death for African Americans in these age groups for more than a decade. Rates of homicide among children, adolescents, and young adults in the United States exceed those of their counterparts in other developed nations by several-fold.3, 4
Unlike the thousands of homicides that occur each year among young people, violent deaths that occur in schools make parents, school officials, and policymakers pause and ask a number of important questions. Researchers and practitioners who work in the area of violence prevention know that the answers to the problem of youth violence are not simple. Violence is a complex phenomenon. The first step toward preventing violence, according to the public health approach, is to identify and understand the factors that place young people at risk for violent victimization and perpetration. This involves understanding the many precursors of violence, including the role of early childhood environments on later violent behavior, as well as understanding how other biological, psychosocial, and environmental factors relate to youth violence.
The purpose of this paper is threefold: (1) to provide an overview of homicide victimization and perpetration among youths during the past decade, (2) to describe the developmental pathways of delinquent and violent behavior and the context in which these behaviors occur, and (3) to describe some of the challenges associated with disrupting these pathways and preventing violence.
Section snippets
Definition of violence
Public health researchers define violence as the “threatened or actual use of physical force against a person or a group that either results or is likely to result in injury or death.”5 In recent years, researchers have expanded the definition to include other possible outcomes, such as psychological harm, maldevelopment, and deprivation. Fatal (e.g., homicide) and nonfatal (e.g., assaultive behavior) outcomes are of particular interest as are the specific mechanisms and intent of injury. The
Prevalence of violence among youth
In 1998, a total of 18,272 homicides occurred in the United States, an annual age-adjusted rate of 7.3 (rates given as number per 100,000).2 Young people are disproportionately represented as victims of homicide in the United States. In 1998, 35% of all homicide victims were younger than aged 25.2 The majority of these victims (82%) were boys and young men. Homicide victimization is also high among African-American and Hispanic youths. In 1998, homicide rates for African-American men and women
Developmental pathways
The period of adolescence and young adulthood is a time of heightened risk behavior. There are, however, different developmental pathways that can lead to serious violence and delinquency during adolescence and young adulthood, and the age of onset for these behaviors may vary considerably.14 Some children exhibit stubborn, defiant, and disobedient behavior at very young ages, progressing to mild and eventually more severe forms of aggressive and assaultive behavior by adolescence and young
Developmental and social context of violence
Behavior and development result from a complex interaction between context and person. Understanding the biological, psychosocial, and environmental factors that place youths on a developmental trajectory of violence over the life course or for a more limited period is key to knowing how to prevent violence. It is equally important to understand these factors within the context of human and social development. As individuals move through the life course from birth to death, they enter and exit
The promise of prevention
Studies of recidivism rates among youths released from correctional and private facilities show that one half to nearly three quarters of these youths re-offend after release.83 Given the complexity of the problem of youth violence in the United States and the desire to reduce recidivism rates among juveniles, it is not surprising that researchers have evaluated a variety of approaches to determine “what works” in preventing delinquent and violent behavior. Through these efforts, much has been
The challenge of prevention
Identifying the factors that increase or reduce the risk for violent victimization and perpetration is important for preventing youth violence because it provides some indication of where to focus preventive efforts. Designing interventions and programs to reduce risk, however, is very difficult. Researchers and practitioners face a number of important challenges in developing violence-prevention programs and evaluating them for their effectiveness. In addition to those discussed in this
Conclusion
The United States has witnessed unprecedented change in the rates of violent victimization and perpetration among the nation’s youth over the past decade. Comprehensive preventive efforts are key to preventing violent and delinquent behavior in young people. Because violence results from a complex interplay of biological, psychosocial, and environmental factors that occur as young people move from early childhood to adulthood, preventive efforts that are sensitive to developmental needs and
References (97)
A forty year perspective on the effects of child abuse and neglect
Child Abuse Negl
(1983)- et al.
Developmental risk factors for youth violence
J Adolesc Health
(2000) - et al.
School-associated violent deaths in the United States, 1992–1994
Jama
(1996) - Murphy SL. Deaths: final data for 1998. National vital statistics reports, vol. 48 (11). Hyattsville, MD: National...
- et al.
Childhood homicide, suicide, and firearm deathsan international comparison
World Health Stat Q
(1996) - et al.
Firearm-related deaths in the United States and 35 other high- and upper-middle income countries
Int J Epidemiol
(1998) - et al.
Public health policy for preventing violence
Health Aff
(1993) - et al.
Understanding and preventing violencepanel on the understanding and control of violent behavior, vol. 1
(1993) - et al.
Social information processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children’s peer groups
J Pers Soc Psychol
(1987) Homicide among 15–19 year old males—United States, 1963–1991
MMWR Morb Mort Wkly Rep
(1994)
Juvenile offenders and victims1999 national report
Key issues in the development of aggression and violence from childhood to early adulthood
Ann Rev Psychol
Developmental approaches to aggression and conduct problems
Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behaviora developmental taxonomy
Psych Rev
Prevention of youth violence
Longitudinal research on crime and delinquency
Stability of aggression over time
Dev Psychol
Stability of aggressive reaction patterns in malesa review
Psychol Bull
Childhood aggression and adult violenceearly precursors and later-life outcomes
The development of aggression
Development of juvenile aggression and violencesome common misconceptions and controversies
Am Psychol
The family backgrounds of aggressive youths
Childhood, adolescent, and adult features of violent males
Aggression and criminality in a longitudinal perspective
The role of early aggressive behavior in the frequency, seriousness, and types of later crime
J Consult Clin Psychol
Serious violent offendersonset, developmental course, and termination: the American Society of Criminology 1993 presidential address
Criminology
A review of predictors of youth violence
The neurobiology of violence and aggression
Hostile attributional biases in severely aggressive adolescents
J Abnorm Psychol
The structure and function of reactive and proactive aggression
Social cognitive processes of severely violent, moderately aggressive, and nonaggressive boys
J Consult Clin Psychol
Distinguishing instrumental and hostile aggressiondoes it make a difference?
J Abnorm Child Psychol
Knowledge structures, social information processing, and children’s aggressive behavior
Soc Dev
Evaluative factors in social problem-solving by aggressive boys
J Abnorm Child Psychol
Social information processing mechanisms in aggressive behavior
Aggression and antisocial behavior
Family factors as correlates and predictors of juvenile conduct problems and delinquency
Child abuse, neglect, and violent criminal behavior
Criminology
Does violence beget violence? A critical examination of the literature
Psychol Bull
Cited by (132)
Determinants of total incapacity to work duration among 231 victims of school violence in France
2022, Archives de PediatriePediatric Firearm-Related Injuries: Taking Kids Out of Harm's Way Begins with Targeted Prevention
2021, Journal of Surgical ResearchCitation Excerpt :Further, for every pediatric firearm-related death, there are seven to eight nonfatal firearm injuries.3 The US has the highest rate of pediatric firearm-related injuries compared to any other developed country, reaching 10-35 times higher than other high-income countries.2,4,5 The US healthcare cost for firearm-related injuries approaches $630 million annually, and the cost for a single pediatric hospitalization for firearm-related injuries approaches $30-45,000, higher on average than an admission following a motor vehicle collision.6-8
Psychosocial interventions for violence exposed youth – A systematic review
2020, Child Abuse and NeglectScreening for violent tendencies in adolescents
2019, Adolescent Health Screening: An Update in the Age of Big Data