A model of the effects of node–link mapping on drug abuse counseling
Introduction
We have been investigating the treatment effectiveness of a promising cognitive enhancement technique called node–link mapping (e.g., Czuchry et al., 1995, Dansereau et al., 1995, Dees et al., 1997, Pitre et al., 1996). Counselors and clients can use this technique to graphically inform and guide counseling sessions. Node–link mapping includes nodes, which encapsulate information, and links, which depict the relationship among nodes (see Fig. 1 for an example of a node–link map that provides an overview of the organization and content of the current paper). As can be seen in Fig. 1, the nodes contain key information, and the links (e.g., T=Type) inform the reader how the nodes are related. For example, one section of the node–link map could read as follows “one type of background research involved treatment settings.”
Although there are several methods for implementing node–link mapping, the underlying structure remains the same. Knowledge (information) maps are expert-designed maps that convey information about a topic area (Fig. 1 is such a map). These are produced and then shared with other individuals. Other types of node–link maps are developed interactively. Free mapping, for example, involves the joint production of a map by client(s) and counselor(s) as a session progresses (see Fig. 2 for an example of a map being produced in a counseling session). In this case, the counselor and client(s) select a topic and place it in a centrally located node, and then expand the map as the session continues. We also have developed prestructured maps, called guide maps, to facilitate individual and group discussions. Guide maps have guiding questions and blank nodes to be completed by the counseling group or by individuals (see Fig. 3 for an example of a guide map). One benefit of guide maps is that they reduce the amount of cognitive processing that is otherwise required in free mapping. Counselors and clients can use any combination of these methods to explore and depict a variety of treatment-related information (e.g., personal issues, causal thinking, and action plans). The purpose of this paper is to provide empirical background on node–link mapping and describe two models for how mapping may enhance counseling.
Section snippets
Background
Node–link mapping has been investigated in both educational and treatment settings. Research in educational settings (comparing node–link maps to traditional text presentations) indicated that maps helped students remember important information (Holley & Dansereau, 1984), extract the main ideas or macrostructure of ideas presented Rewey et al., 1991, Rewey et al., 1989, and were helpful especially for low verbal individuals (Patterson, Dansereau, & Wiegmann, 1993). These benefits of node–link
General findings: mapping can improve drug abuse treatment
Based on during-treatment assessments, we have found that mapping clients have higher ratings of their own therapeutic progress Czuchry et al., 1995, Knight et al., 1994, Pitre et al., 1998, and have more positive affective responses to treatment Newbern et al., 1999, Pitre et al., 1998. Mapping clients have been shown to miss fewer counseling sessions Czuchry et al., 1995, Dansereau et al., 1996, Dansereau et al., 1993, Joe et al., 1994 and are less likely to test positive for opiates or
Understanding how mapping enhances treatment: the TCU Process Model
To understand the means by which mapping enhances treatment, we first examine a general framework of treatment process that identifies key therapeutic elements and their sequential linkages. Fig. 4 presents the TCU Process Model (Simpson, Joe, Rowan-Szal, & Greener, 1995), which has received empirical support through structural equation modeling Simpson et al., 1997, Simpson et al., 1997. The model reveals important pretreatment factors that can facilitate or impede treatment effectiveness, as
Mapping effects in the counseling session
There are several factors that can impede or facilitate treatment engagement, which as mentioned, include program participation and the development of the therapeutic relationship (see Fig. 4). For example, client attributes that exist prior to treatment can influence treatment engagement. Characteristics of the counselor (not shown in the model) such as perceived competence and skill likewise influence treatment engagement. In general, mapping provides a visual means to facilitate the transfer
Conclusions and future directions
This paper reviewed our previous work on node–link mapping, a visual representation technique, and its effects on drug abuse counseling, and introduced two models to provide a framework for understanding these effects. The results are based on two major NIDA research projects (DATAR and CETOP), both of which involved a comprehensive and psychometrically sound evaluation system. The main comparisons investigated were between standard counseling and standard counseling that was enhanced with
Acknowledgements
This work was supported in part by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA, Grant No. R01 DA06162 and Grant No. R01 DA08608). The interpretations and conclusions, however, do not necessarily represent the position of NIDA or the Department of Health and Human Services.
The authors would like to acknowledge the helpful comments suggested by an anonymous reviewer.
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