Judging the quality of care at the end of life: can proxies provide reliable information?
Introduction
The provision of hospice and palliative care for patients at the end of life is growing. Recent estimates in the UK show that around 19% of patients with cancer die in a hospice and approximately 60% of cancer patients who die are cared for by palliative home care teams (The Hospice Information Service, 2000). Given the prevailing ethos of evidence-based practice and economic constraints, the provision of palliative care, like other areas of health care, has had to respond to demands for efficiency and effectiveness. Such demands have resulted in a move toward a greater evaluation of services and to clinical audit. Audit within palliative care serves various essential functions beyond economic concerns, including identifying patient and family needs, assessing palliative care outcomes such as quality of life, monitoring standards and identifying training needs (Higginson, 1993).
When evaluating services for patients at the end of life and their families, researchers are confronted with a number of methodological challenges. One problem is the difficulty of ascertaining the views and experiences of terminally ill patients. Apart from ethical concerns about interviewing patients, studies relying on the patient's accounts prior to death, the prospective approach, are fundamentally biased as they only represent the proportion of the population that is less impaired and therefore able, as well as willing, to participate. A decline in performance status is seen at the end of life in many cancer patients and is a good indicator of prognosis (Vigano, Dorgan, Buckingham, Bruera, & Suarez-Almazor, 2000). It is at this point in time that assessments of patients’ quality of life are most needed (Aaronson, 1991). Prospective studies are also limited to diseases such as cancer that have an identifiable terminal phase, and where patients are likely to be known to relevant services (Morris et al., 1986). Added to this, high attrition rates, small sample sizes and difficulties associated with predicting survival rates can also hamper attempts to conduct valid research (McWhinney, Bass, & Donner, 1994; Rinck et al., 1997).
An alternative approach that overcomes many of the problems associated with prospective studies is the retrospective or ‘after death’ approach. Here, observations are gathered from proxies acting on behalf of the patient, after the patient's death. Usually this is the patient's relative, friend or a health professional involved in the patient's care. This approach has been used in a number of influential studies on care of the dying (Cartwright & Seale, 1990; Seale & Cartwright, 1994; Addington-Hall & McCarthy, 1995). The largest survey of its kind in the United Kingdom is the Regional Study of the Care of the Dying (RSCD) (Addington-Hall & McCarthy, 1995). Being retrospective, the authors were able to identify those individuals who had died within a specific time period; in this case the last quarter of 1990. From these were extracted representative samples of 270 deaths from each of 20 different health districts in England. Selecting patients solely according to time and place of death avoided creating an inherent bias towards any particular cause of death. Thus, deaths from different causes could be represented (Addington-Hall, Lay, Altmann, & McCarthy, 1995; McCarthy, Lay, & Addington-Hall, 1996; McCarthy, Addington-Hall, & Altmann, 1997). The results of the RSCD show that current health care and social services in England are in need of significant improvement before they can fully meet the needs of terminally ill patients and their families. Similar methods have been used in other countries, for example in the SUPPORT study where bereaved relatives provided information on patients’ last three days of life (Lynn et al., 1997). These studies have provided important insights into death and dying in late 20th century.
However, collecting information indirectly from proxies at some later point in time introduces potential problems regarding the validity of reports (Higginson, Priest, & McCarthy, 1994; Hinton, 1996). Validity, in this context, refers to the degree to which proxy accounts accurately reflect the experiences of the individual they are representing. At present, little is known about the accuracy of proxies’ responses, despite the fact that inaccuracy may compromise validity and lead to erroneous conclusions. Given that proxies are a significant source of information and are often the only available source for a large proportion of dying patients, it is vital to understand how and why their accounts might differ from those of the patient. This paper provides a comprehensive and critical review of studies that assess the validity of proxies acting for patients at the end of life. The emphasis is on significant others as proxies for the patient. These include family members, friends or neighbours, but exclude health professionals. This is because the focus of retrospective surveys reported to date, rely on significant others acting as proxies1 rather than health professionals. Relevant literature from palliative and health care, survey methodology and psychology is drawn upon to examine factors likely to affect the validity of proxies’ reports.
Section snippets
Methods for testing the validity of proxies
A systematic review of the literature, using a recognised search strategy (Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, 1996), revealed a large volume of papers on patient–proxy agreement. This review only includes studies that investigate outcomes relevant to care at the end of life, where at least some of the subjects have an advanced disease or a terminal illness. Excluded from the review are all those studies that concern patient–proxy agreement involving children and adolescents and patients with
Levels of agreement between the patient and proxy
In spite of the heterogeneity of the research assessing the validity of proxies’ reports, there is some consistency across the literature. The evidence suggests that information that relies on concrete, observable phenomenon, such as service provision, service evaluation and factual information, tends to have good levels of agreement (Clipp & George, 1992; Farrow & Samet, 1990; Field et al., 1995; Higginson & McCarthy, 1993; O’Brien & Francis, 1988; Spiller & Alexander, 1993). This agreement is
Patient and proxy demographics
Evidence for a relation between levels of agreement between patients and proxies, and demographic information such as age, ethnicity, gender, socio-economic status and educational level have been inconsistent. Those studies that showed that demographics do have a bearing on agreement found the influence to be mixed (O’Brien & Francis, 1988) or a function of the symptom evaluated (Kristjanson et al., 1998). For example, older proxies were less accurate in reporting pain frequency than younger
Assessment instrument
Responding to a question is a complex cognitive process, particularly if it requires making judgements regarding other people's experiences. It consists not only of attending, perceiving and encoding information pertaining to an event, but also recalling material and judging its appropriateness in relation to the question and the response format. Errors in responding can occur at any stage, and some degree of inaccuracy in proxies’ reports can be attributed to the instrument itself. As Sudman
Factors associated with the validity studies
The research presented so far has summarised the many factors that can potentially affect the validity of proxies’ reports. This section deals with the quality of the studies that have investigated this aspect.
Summary and conclusions
This review provides encouraging evidence for the use of proxies at the end of life, for some aspects of the patient's experience, most notably for service provision and evaluation, and for symptoms that are more observable in nature. However, care must be taken when using proxies to report on aspects of the patient's experience that are more subjective, such as pain and affective states. The findings are consistent with Sprangers and Aaronson's (1992) review of proxies for patients with
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a grant from the Joint Research Committee of King's College School of Medicine and Dentistry and King's College NHS Trust.
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