Implicit connections with nature☆
Introduction
With each passing year, we are presented with more and more evidence that human behavior is adversely affecting the natural environment. Newspapers, magazines, television news shows, and every other form of media routinely convey information on a range of topics from pollution, to energy conservation, to global warming. Survey data indicate that a high percentage of people in the United States, and many other countries throughout the world, know about, and express concern for these issues (Dunlap, 1991; Dunlap, Gallup, & Gallup, 1993; Dunlap, Van Liere, Mertig, & Jones, 2000; Ray & Anderson, 2000). In this paper, we propose that the types of environmental attitudes a person develops are associated with the extent to which an individual believes that s/he is part of the natural environment. Data from two studies are presented on implicit connections with nature using the Implicit Association Test (IAT).
Before summarizing the previous research on this topic, it is useful to offer some definitions for the terms used in the research literature. In the sections that follow, we will use the terms “concerns,” “attitudes,” “values,” and “worldview,” and the distinctions between these concepts may not be readily apparent. Indeed, these terms are often used interchangeably in the research literature. We use the term environmental concern to refer to the affect (i.e., worry) associated with beliefs about environmental problems. For example, a person may be concerned about the harmful consequences of air pollution for his or her health, or concerned about the long-term consequences of improper disposal of hazardous household waste. Attitude refers to a person's evaluative judgment about a particular entity (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Attitudes are typically expressed in degrees of favorability, as in “I am in favor of establishing a curbside recycling program,” or “I support deposits on beverage containers.” The construct of environmental attitudes refers to the collection of beliefs, affect, and behavioral intentions a person holds regarding environmentally related activities or issues.
We use the term worldview to refer to a person's belief about humanity's relationship with nature. A person's worldview serves as a cognitive paradigm or belief system. Dunlap and Van Liere (1978) and Dunlap et al. (2000) have argued that a person's environmental paradigm constitutes a fundamental part of a person's belief system; it is a “primitive belief” and influences a wide range of concerns and attitudes. At the broadest level are values, which are conceptualized as important life goals or principles (Rokeach, 1973; Olson & Zanna, 1993). Values function as an organizing system for attitudes and beliefs, and they are viewed as determinants of attitudes. Examples of values would include “equality,” “wisdom,” “ambition,” and “freedom” (cf. Schwartz, 1994). The term environmental values refers to those values that are specifically related to nature or that have been found to correlate with specific environmental attitudes or concerns.
Section snippets
Conceptualizing environmental concern—why do people care?
For the last 30 years, researchers have examined the underlying factors that influence people's attitudes and concerns about the environment and environmental issues. A host of demographic variables, experiences, personality dimensions, beliefs about control, efficacy, and responsibility have all received considerable research attention (Schultz, Oskamp, & Mainieri, 1995; Hwang, Kim, & Jeng, 2000; Kals & Maes, 2002). Most of this research has been based on traditional attitude theory, in which
Participants
Participants in the study were 160 undergraduates from California State University, San Marcos. Participants were recruited from the Psychology Department's Human Participant Pool. A sample size of 160 was selected in order to provide 80% power for a correlation coefficient of 0.20 (Cohen, 1988, p. 87).
Materials
A questionnaire and computerized test were developed to measure environmental attitudes, implicit attitudes toward natural and built environments, values, and demographics. Measures included: the
Study 2
The results from Study 1 showed a small but interpretable pattern of relationships between implicit associations with nature, and specific types of environmental attitudes. In order to more fully understand these relationships, a second study was conducted using a similar procedure. Our goals in this second study were to replicate the findings from Study 1 (particularly the relationship between connectedness, biospheric, and egoistic concerns), to examine the relationship between global–local
Discussion
The two studies reported in this paper were designed to examine implicit connections with nature. Our goals were (1) to develop an implicit measure of the extent to which individuals associate themselves with the natural environment, (2) to examine the relationship between these implicit connections and explicit measures of environmental attitudes, and (3) to examine the stability of implicit connections with nature across time.
The results provide clear evidence for the usefulness of implicit
References (65)
Towards ecological selfDeep ecology meets constructionist self theory
Journal of Environmental Psychology
(1996)- et al.
Who recycles and whenA review of personal and situational factors
Journal of Environmental Psychology
(1995) - et al.
Inclusion of other in the self scale and the structure of interpersonal closeness
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
(1992) - et al.
Close relationships as including other in the self
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
(1991) - et al.
Angels fearTowards an epistemology of the sacred
(1987) Beyond the land ethicMore essays in environmental philosophy
(1999)Significant life experiences revisitedA review of research on sources of environmental sensitivity
Environmental Education Research
(1998)- Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence...
- Cohen, M. J. (1997). Reconnecting with nature: Finding wellness through restoring your bond with the earth. Corvallis,...
Implicit attitude measuresConsistency, stability, and convergent validity
Psychological Science
Why do people act in sustainable ways? Results of an empirical survey of lifestyle pioneers
Trends in public opinion toward environmental issues: 1965–1990
Society and Natural Resources
The new environmental paradigm
Journal of Environmental Education
Measuring endorsement of the New Ecological ParadigmA revised NEP scale
Journal of Social Issues
The psychology of attitudes
Implicit social cognitionAttitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes
Psychological Review
A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept
Psychological Review
Using the implicit association test to measure self-esteem and self-concept
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Measuring individual differences in implicit cognitionThe implicit association test
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Examining the causal relationship among selected antecedents of responsible environmental behavior
Journal of Environmental Education
The human relationship with natureDevelopment and culture
Sustainable development and emotions
The experience of natureA psychological perspective
Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
The value of life
Nature and psycheRadical environmentalism and the politics of subjectivity
The semantic-procedural interface model of the selfThe role of self-knowledge for context dependent versus context-independent modes of thinking
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
A sand county almanac and sketches here and there
Cited by (688)
Cultivating initial trust in ghost kitchens: A mixed-methods investigation of antecedents and consequences
2024, International Journal of Hospitality ManagementDeveloping a biophilic behavioural change design framework - A scoping study
2024, Urban Forestry and Urban GreeningFrom childhood blue space exposure to adult environmentalism: The role of nature connectedness and nature contact
2024, Journal of Environmental PsychologyEco-destination image, environment beliefs, ecotourism attitudes, and ecotourism intention: The moderating role of biospheric values
2023, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management
- ☆
Our appreciation goes to Maribel Peraza for her work on Study 1. Portions of this paper were presented at the meeting of the Western Psychological Association, April, 2002, Irvine, CA.