Metabolic and cognitive coefficients in the development of hunger sensations after pure macronutrient ingestion in the morning

doi:10.1016/S0195-6663(03)00116-8

Appetite

Volume 42, Issue 1, February 2004, Pages 49-61

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0195-6663(03)00116-8 Get rights and content

Abstract

The effect of pure carbohydrate, protein and fat ingestion on different aspects of short-term satiety and their relation to metabolic and cognitive performance indices were studied in 15 healthy male students. Subjects were tested in three sessions for short-term changes in blood indices, indirect calorimetry, different aspects of hunger sensations as well as mood and objective cognitive performance using a repeated-measures, counterbalanced cross-over design. Measurements were made after an overnight fast before and hourly during 3 h after macronutrient ingestion. Preloads were isoenergetic (1670 kJ) spoonable creams with similar sensory properties of either pure carbohydrates, protein or fat. Overall ‘desire to eat’ and ‘gastric emptiness’ represented principal components for overall ‘hunger’ ratings, which were larger after fat and carbohydrate compared with protein ingestion. In the first hour, the hunger suppression of carbohydrates was similar to that of protein and related to changes in β-hydroxybutyrate and insulin concentrations accompanied with a preference for carbohydrate-rich food. In the third hour, it was similar to the low satiating power of fat and related to diet-induced thermogenesis together with a preference for protein-rich food. For all macronutrients feelings of ‘energy’ were negatively related to hunger sensations, whereas objective cognitive performance was positively related. Our findings suggest that the subjective satiating effect of carbohydrates seems to change with time in relation to postprandial metabolic changes, presumably mainly dependent on the glycemic response and diet-induced thermogenesis.

Introduction

In industrialised societies a decrease in physical activity and an increase in cognitive work prevail together with overnutrition and overweight. Ingestion of the three macronutrients carbohydrates (CHOs), protein and fat (next to alcohol) may affect aspects of hunger and satiety (Rolls et al., 1991) as well as cognitive functions (Fischer, Colombani, Langhans, & Wenk, 2001) differently. Sensations of hunger and satiety may also affect mental states like mood and cognitive performance. Although in some studies different aspects of hunger and satiety were recorded (Rolls et al., 1988, Crovetti et al., 1998, Stubbs et al., 1996), the postprandial time course of these individual aspects was often not further analysed together with changes in metabolic as well as mood and cognitive performance indices. In addition, the subjective satiating efficiency of CHOs is unclear as it was shown to be similar to the high satiating effect of protein but also to the low satiating effect of fat (Rolls and Hammer, 1995, Johnstone et al., 1996).

Hunger and satiety as well as cognitive functions are generally dependent on a multitude of physiological and psychological influencing factors that act synergistically (Johnstone et al., 1996, Shide et al., 1995). Hence, for the individual macronutrients it is of interest, which spectrum of postprandial metabolic indices together with mood and cognitive performance indices is related to different aspects of satiety. We therefore investigated the short-term effects of pure CHO, protein or fat ingestion in the morning on 3 h postprandial changes in quantitative as well as qualitative aspects of hunger sensations together with changes in metabolic and cognitive performance indices. We expected that dependent on the postprandial interval different metabolic changes in macronutrient metabolism as well as energy expenditure were related to individual aspects of satiety. Rating scales were used to assess different subjective satiating aspects, and an ad libitum buffet-style self-selection lunch was used to assess food intake. To ensure comparable results for the individual macronutrients, isoenergetic preloads of each macronutrient with similar volume and sensory properties were tested.

Section snippets

Subjects

Seventeen healthy male students, mean age 26.5 (SD 3.3) years, were recruited through advertisements from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and the University in Zurich. They were informed about the general objectives, the procedure and possible risks of the study and were compensated for their participation. Subjects were non-restraint eaters, non-smokers, not trained athletes, not colour-blind and had a mean body mass index of 21.9 (SD 1.7) kg/m². They were not on any medication and

Questionnaire data

The subjects' compliance with the restrictions for the day before their experimental day was good (i.e. subjects stick to the restrictions) and did not differ significantly between treatments. Subjects' mental as well as subjective physical performance on the test mornings were also not significantly different between treatments. Furthermore, the acceptance and sensory impression of the preloads did not differ significantly. However, the acute ‘filling‘ and ‘satiating’ ratings were

Discussion

Our data show significant differences in the time course of rated ‘hunger’, ‘gastric emptiness’ and ‘desire to eat’ as well as a specific preference for macronutrients after the ingestion of pure macronutrient preloads. There were, however, no significant differences in food intake indices at lunch. The three hunger sensations were also related to different metabolic as well as cognitive performance indices. Energy content, volume, acceptance and sensory properties of our preloads were matched.

Conclusions

In summary, pure CHO, protein or fat ingestion in the morning resulted in significant postprandial differences for the three sensations ‘desire to eat’, ‘gastric emptiness’ and ‘hunger’. Overall, ‘desire to eat’ and ‘gastric emptiness’ represented principal components for the ‘hunger’ ratings, which were larger after fat and CHO compared with protein ingestion. Energy and macronutrient intake at lunch, however, did not differ significantly between preloads. While in the first hour the hunger

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These null findings were inconsistent with previous studies that observed less hunger and desire to eat after consuming HP diets [54] and breakfasts [55]. However, these studies used protein supplements rather than foods to provide 100 g of protein at a meal [55] or provided nearly twice the Dietary Reference Intake for protein over the course of the day [54]. Although appetitive differences were observed, these approaches are not particularly advisable longer term as current research suggests approximately 30 g of protein is the amount that can be used for anabolism at one meal [33].
As insufficient sleep and obesity become more widespread, finding strategies to overcome changes in appetite and food cravings after sleep reduction is imperative. This study examined the effects of a high-protein (HP) and high-carbohydrate (HC) breakfast on appetitive sensations, food cravings, and dietary intake after nights of habitual (HS) and curtailed sleep (CS). Twenty-seven non-obese, premenopausal women who reported routinely eating breakfast participated in this randomized crossover study. Participants completed 4 laboratory visits with different combinations of sleep and breakfast conditions. Sleep was reduced by 33% on curtailed nights. At each visit, appetitive sensations were measured before breakfast and every 30 min thereafter throughout the 4-hour visit; area under the curve (AUC) was calculated. Food cravings were assessed before and 3.5 h after breakfast. Intake of ad libitum lunch and daily dietary intake were measured. Regardless of the breakfast condition, CS increased hunger (p = 0.043) and desire to eat (p = 0.044) and decreased fullness (p = 0.035). The HP breakfast increased fullness AUC after HS (p = 0.022) but not CS. Regardless of the sleep condition, the changes in food cravings scores were significantly different based on breakfast condition (p = 0.009), with food cravings increased after the HC breakfast and decreased after the HP breakfast. However, breakfast condition did not influence hunger or desire to eat AUC after either sleep condition. Neither the breakfast condition nor the sleep condition influenced lunch and daily energy intake. In conclusion, it appears protein reduces food cravings regardless of sleep condition in this population but obtaining sufficient sleep is necessary to benefit from the effects of high protein intake on fullness.
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‘Satiation’ and ‘satiety’ are key terms that have come to be widely used to help understand processes involved in appetite control. Satiation is considered to be the signals or processes that bring a meal to an end, whereas satiety is the signals or processes, following the end of a meal, that inhibit eating before hunger returns. Protein is the most effective food macronutrient providing a satiating effect. Thus, formulating foods with increased protein contents can help to modulate food intake, promoting body weight loss and body weight maintenance thereafter. Mechanisms explaining protein-induced satiety are primarily nutrient-specific, but they are of course not mathematically related to satiety. Different proteins cause different nutrient-related responses of anorexigenic hormones. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) release evoked by a high protein meal is stimulated by the carbohydrate content. Also, cholecystokinin (CCK) and peptide YY (PYY) release is stimulated by a high-protein meal. Sensory, cognitive, post-ingestive and post-absorptive signals will determine jointly the feeling of satiation and satiety. Oral perception cues also contribute increased expectations of satiating capacity when the oral residence time and in-mouth handling are longer and more laborious. In the present review, the authors want to obtain an overview of the satiating ability of dietary protein and its role in satiation and satiety. This could be really significant in showing the food industry the path for developing protein-rich satiating foods in response to consumer demand.
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Recently, the measurement of hunger and appetite on visual analog scale is considered as a valid tool in assessing the perception of satiety period for comparison with control or other food materials [15,62]. Foods rich in proteins [14,23,26], thickening agents like guar gum [18,40,43], gel-forming dietary fibers such as pectin [84] and nuts rich in fat, protein and fibers [79] are known to provide good perceivable satiation. Among the fibers, the viscosity was considered as an important factor in gastric emptying and thereby appetite control [41,50].
Appetite control and reduction of additional calorie intake may be a logical approach for proper weight management. Viscous dietary fibers are effective in appetite control but difficult to apply in normal serving sizes in foods and nutritional supplements due to their viscosity and required high doses. Guar fiber popularly known as partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG) is near non-viscous soluble fiber that has been proven effective in providing many physiological benefits. Guar fiber has also been identified as potential natural food and nutritional supplement ingredient for appetite control. The aim of this review is to summarize all the clinical studies pertinent to its effects on appetite control in normal subjects and postulate the mechanism of action. Guar fiber exhibited appetite control via delaying the colonic transit time of digested food, stimulation of satiety hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) and induction of prolonged perception of post-meal satiation and satiety effects. Regular intake of guar fiber at a dose of 2 g/serving provided significant sustained post-meal satiation effects and minimized the inter-meal calorie intake by about 20% in normal subjects. The intake of guar fiber alone at a dose > 5 g/serving or its combination with protein (2.6 g guar fiber + 8 g protein/serving) showed acute satiety effects in normal subjects. Guar fiber containing > 85% dietary fiber, with clear solubility and negligible taste impact, may be an ideal natural dietary fiber for use in food and supplement applications at low dosage levels for appetite control.
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In the laboratory the satiating effects of high protein foods or meals have been compared to iso-energetic lower protein counterparts, typically using “preload” methodology where the measure of satiety is post-consumption subjective ratings of appetite and/or food intake. The majority of these types of studies indicate that high protein foods deliver better satiety than energy matched foods with lower levels of protein (e.g. Astbury, Stevenson, Morris, Taylor, & Macdonald, 2010; Bertenshaw, Lluch, & Yeomans, 2009; Booth, Chase, & Campbell, 1970; Fischer, Colombani, & Wenk, 2004; Hill & Blundell, 1986; Rolls, Hetherington, & Burley, 1988; Teff, Young, & Blundell, 1989), though this not always reported (de Graaf, Hulshof, Weststrate, & Jas, 1992; Vozzo et al., 2003). Overall this body of literature indicates that increasing the protein content of a food is an effective way to deliver enhanced satiety to the consumer, but manipulating the macronutrient content of a food while keeping energy constant means it is difficult to be certain whether these effects are due to the superior satiating effect of protein, the reduction of less satiating nutrients carbohydrate and fat, or a combination of both of these.
Foods that generate strong satiety sensations have obvious benefits for weight management. This review builds on the understanding that a food's satiating power is dependent on the amount of protein, carbohydrate, fat and fibre it contains by examining evidence that the consumer's sensory and cognitive appraisal of the food is also important. It is concluded that numerous features of a food product can be manipulated to enhance the consumer's experience of satiety but the combination of these features will ultimately determine its effect on appetite control. Taking this integrated approach to satiety will optimise the development of high satiety foods.
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Protein is the most satiating macronutrient and dairy whey protein is thought to be more satiating than other protein sources. The purported satiating effect of whey protein may be attributable to the presence of glycomacropeptide (GMP). The objective of this study was to investigate the role of GMP in the satiating effect of whey protein. Isoenergetic (~1600 kJ) preload drinks contained GMP isolate (86% GMP, “GMP”), whey protein isolate (WPI) with 21% naturally occurring GMP, WPI with 2% naturally present GMP, or maltodextrin carbohydrate (“carbohydrate”). Satiety was assessed in 22 normal-weight adult women by determining the consumption of a test meal provided ad libitum 120 min following ingestion of a preload drink, and also by using visual analogue scales (VAS) for rating feelings of hunger, desire to eat, prospective consumption and fullness (appetite). The ad libitum test meal intake was significantly different between the preload drinks (p = 0.0003), with food intake following ingestion of both WPI preload drinks (regardless of the amount of GMP) being ~18% lower compared with the beverages enriched with carbohydrate or GMP alone. There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) in the VAS-rated feelings of appetite among the four preload drinks. GMP alone did not reduce subsequent food intake compared with a drink enriched with carbohydrate, but whey protein had a greater satiating effect than carbohydrate. The presence of GMP in whey does not appear to be the cause of the observed effect of whey protein on satiety.
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However, the majority of positive effects of breakfast have been shown on tests of delayed verbal memory. Reaction time is often reported to decrease with increased feelings of hunger (Fischer, Colombani, & Wenk, 2004), and impairment in concentration following a high caloric breakfast has also been reported (Michaud, Musse, Nicolas, & Mejean, 1991). It is important to note that decrements following breakfast were only demonstrated when measured at least 3 h later and following consumption of a chocolate drink.
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Research ReportsMetabolic and cognitive coefficients in the development of hunger sensations after pure macronutrient ingestion in the morning

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Subjects

Questionnaire data

Discussion

Conclusions

Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy

Physiology and Behavior

Physiology and Behavior

Physiology and Behavior

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Physiology and Behavior

Appetite

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Appetite

Appetite

Biological Psychiatry

Appetite

Physiology and Behavior

Physiology and Behavior

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Physiology and Behavior

Physiology and Behavior

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Metabolism

Effects of a high-protein meal (meat) and a high-carbohydrate meal (vegetarian) on satiety measured by automated computerized monitoring of subsequent food intake, motivation to eat and food preferences

International Journal of Obesity

The influence of thermic effect of food on satiety

European Journal of Clinical Nutrition

The effect of incorporating fat into different components of a meal on gastric emptying and postprandial blood glucose and insulin responses

British Journal of Nutrition

The effect of meal composition on the degree of satiation following a test meal and possible mechanisms involved

British Journal of Nutrition

Research Reports
Metabolic and cognitive coefficients in the development of hunger sensations after pure macronutrient ingestion in the morning