Extraversion, social support processes, and stress

Abstract

This study was designed to determine the role extraversion plays in influencing the utilization of social support and how this support might then subsequently influence extraverts' and introverts' differential experience of stress. Ninety-nine undergraduate introductory psychology students served as participants in the study. Participants were administered questionnaires that assessed level of extraversion, perceived available support, enacted support, social network characteristics, and stress, as measured by daily hassles. Results of the study revealed positive correlations between extraversion and perceived availability of support (Belonging and Tangible), enacted support (Directive Guidance, Nondirective Support, Positive Social Interaction, Tangible Assistance), and social network characteristics (network size and contact with network members). Extraversion was also positively correlated with stress. Results of path analyses suggested that perceived availability of support, in particular Belonging support, might mediate the relationship between extraversion and stress.

Introduction

In 1967, Eysenck advanced a biologically-based theory to explain the trait of extraversion. This theory suggests that introverts and extraverts operate at a differential level of cortical arousal with introverts generally experiencing higher levels of arousal than extraverts. According to Eysenck, these physiological arousal differences influence the expression of different behavioral patterns of extraverts and introverts. For example, due to their suboptimal-arousal, extraverts often exhibit more sociable, spontaneous, and even risky behaviors in an attempt to increase their arousal level. However, introverts, who are easily over-aroused, tend to be more socially reserved, serious, and controlled, thereby reducing their exposure to stimulating experiences and lowering their level of arousal.

Since the introduction of Eysenck's arousal hypothesis much research has been conducted to test the physiological component of this theory. That is, experimental studies that range from assessing brainstem evoked potentials (Bullock and Gilliland, 1993, Stelmack and Wilson, 1982, Swickert and Gilliland 1998) to psychopharmacological studies (Claridge, Donald, & Birchall, 1981) have been conducted. Work in this area has generally been supportive of Eysenck's theory (for a review see Matthews & Gilliland, 1999). Studies focusing on the higher-order behavioral aspects of extraversion (e.g., social interaction, stress perception) have arguably been less plentiful. Establishing links between the biological bases of introversion/extraversion (I/E) and higher order complex social behavior is essential if the intricate dynamics of this dimension are to be fully understood.

One important expression of social behavior that the theory of extraversion can speak to is the degree to which individuals seek out and utilize social support as a stress coping response. The theory of extraversion indicates that extraverts, to compensate for their lowered arousal, tend to seek out interaction with others while introverts, in an attempt to avoid being over aroused, tend to withdraw from over-stimulating social interactions. Due to these different behavioral tendencies, different predictions would be made concerning the social support seeking of extraverts and introverts. Specifically, because of their greater social seeking tendency, it is predicted that extraverts would naturally gravitate toward seeking support from others to cope with their problems. Conversely, it is predicted that because of their lowered tendency to seek out interaction with others, introverts would be less likely to draw upon social support in an effort to cope with their problems. Clearly, the study of social support provides a unique and rich opportunity for examining the theoretical extension of the I/E biologically-based model with a behavior that has significant real-world implications; social support has been shown to have an important role to play in influencing an individual's experience of stress as well as physical health outcomes (Cohen, 1988, Cohen and Wills, 1985). This study was designed to determine the role extraversion plays in influencing the use of social support and how this support might then subsequently influence introverts' and extraverts' differential experience of stress.

Early studies in the area of extraversion and social support quickly established that extraverts, compared with introverts, are more likely to report seeking out social support in an attempt to cope with their problems (Amirkhan et al., 1995, Halamandaris and Power, 1999, Nakano, 1992, Parkes, 1986). In addition, extraverts also seem to have larger and more diverse social support networks than introverts, giving them more people from whom to solicit support (Cohen et al., 1997, Stokes, 1985). Extraverts also report that they utilize social support more frequently than do introverts (Lu, 1997, Stokes, 1985). This effect has been demonstrated experimentally as well. In studying the utilization of social support, Amirkhan et al. (1995) presented participants with an unsolvable anagram task to complete. Participants were told that an assistant stationed outside of the room could be asked for help in solving the puzzles. Help seeking was recorded for each participant and there was a significant positive correlation found between extraversion and help seeking behavior.

While these studies have helped to elucidate the relationship between extraversion and social support, there are several important issues that have yet to be clarified. For instance, Amirkhan et al. (1995) demonstrated that extraverts, compared to introverts, are more likely to ask for guidance from others. Although guidance is one important type of social support, there are other equally important types of social support that introverts and extraverts might differentially use. This study attempts to survey introverts' and extraverts' use of specific types of social support. To investigate this issue, the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (ISEL) was used to assess perceived availability of four types of social support (Appraisal, Belonging, Self-esteem, and Tangible Assistance) and the Inventory of Socially Supportive Behaviors (ISSB) was used to assess four types of enacted support (Directive Guidance, Nondirective Support, Positive Social Exchange, Tangible Assistance). In general, these questionnaires address whether interpersonal relationships serve particular supportive functions. More specifically, the ISEL assesses whether individuals perceive that they have others they can turn to for support while the ISSB measures types of social support actually received.

In addition to examining the differential use of types of functional social support by introverts and extraverts, this study also assessed potential differences between introverts' and extraverts' social support networks. Past work has shown that extraverts, compared with introverts, have larger social support networks (Bolger and Eckenrode, 1991, Russell et al., 1997) and have contact with their network members more often (Russell et al., 1997). However, it is less well known whether extraverts, compared with introverts, know their network members for differing lengths of time and are differentially satisfied with the social support that they receive from their network members. In fact, inconsistent results have been reported concerning the relationship between extraversion and satisfaction with social support. That is, whereas some research suggests that extraverts are more satisfied with support received from their network members than are introverts (Demakis & McAdams, 1994), other studies have failed to confirm this finding (Krause et al., 1990, Sarason et al., 1983). Consequently, it is unclear as to whether extraverts, compared to introverts, are more satisfied with their social support networks. Given the dearth of strong empirical findings in this area, this study attempted to elucidate the relationship between extraversion and each of two different social network variables (satisfaction and length of knowing). In addition, both network size and contact with network members were examined in an attempt to replicate previous research that found a relationship between extraversion and these network characteristics (Bolger and Eckenrode, 1991, Russell et al., 1997).

Lastly, this study examined how utilization of these social support mechanisms might differentially influence the experience of stress, as measured by daily hassles, for introverts and extraverts. Past research examining the relationship between extraversion and stress has been mixed at best. While some research has suggested an association between extraversion and stress (Belsky et al., 1995, Lu, 1994), other studies have failed to document this finding (Kardum & Krapic, 2001). While a variety of factors may be responsible for these inconsistencies, we propose that social support is one factor that deserves examination in this regard. That is, social support may be an important factor that impacts upon the association between extraversion and stress and may be accounting for these inconsistent findings. Specifically, social support may play a moderating and/or mediating role in the relationship between extraversion and stress. Although few studies have examined this issue, those that have are supportive of this premise. For instance, it has been shown that network size moderates the relationship between extraversion and small, negative events (Zautra, Finch, Reich, & Guarnaccia, 1991). However, to the best of our knowledge, there do not appear to be any published studies that have simultaneously examined both functional and structural social support factors as moderators and/or mediators of the relationship between extraversion and stress. This study was designed to address these issues.

Several hypotheses were generated to investigate these research objectives. Based on past literature (Amirkhan et al., 1995, Russell et al., 1997, Stokes, 1985) it was hypothesized that extraverts would report higher use of two basic types of functional support: perceived availability (ISEL) and enacted support (ISSB). Regarding structural support characteristics, because of extraverts' gregarious nature and emphasis on social interaction, it was hypothesized that extraverts would report more contact with their network members and more satisfaction with their social support networks than would introverts. Furthermore, because extraverts are expected to constantly cultivate new friendships, it was predicted that they would report knowing their network members for shorter periods of time. Based on previous research (Bolger and Eckenrode, 1991, Russell et al., 1997), it was also hypothesized that extraverts would report larger social networks than would introverts. Finally, it was hypothesized that functional and structural social support would influence the relationship between extraversion and stress. To explore the exact nature of this influence both moderating and mediating models were considered. Given the paucity of empirical work in this area, it is difficult to generate precise predictions. However, using an Eysenckian model of extraversion it was predicted that social support might moderate the relationship between extraversion and stress. To clarify, given their heightened arousal and their natural tendency to limit contact with others, introverts should be more comfortable with low levels of social support. Additionally, introverts might actually become over-stimulated when they are exposed to high levels of social support and, as a result, might experience increased stress. Conversely, extraverts, with their suboptimal-arousal, often seek out others in an attempt to regulate their arousal. Therefore, extraverts should be more comfortable with high levels of social support. Furthermore, when others aren't available to provide support (low social support), this might create a stressful experience for the extravert. Alternatively, or in addition to, it could be argued that social support might mediate the relationship between extraversion and stress. This model would suggest that social support acts as an intervening variable between extraversion and stress. Based on past research on the stress-reducing effects of social support (Barrera, 1986, Cohen, 1988), this model would suggest that both extraverts and introverts would benefit from social support. Therefore, it was predicted that both groups would report reduced levels of stress when they have support to draw upon.