Subjective well-being. Sex-specific effects of genetic and environmental factors

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Abstract

Genetic and environmental factors in subjective well-being were investigated. Special attention was paid to sex-specific effects. A classical twin design was applied, based upon data from 5140 young adult twins (same and opposite-sex). Structural equation modelling was used to estimate effects from additive genes, genetic interaction, common environment and non-shared environment. The best fitting model involved an additive genetic factor and non-shared environment. There were only marginal sex differences in mean levels of subjective well-being, and no differences in variance. Yet, there were sex differences in the degree of heritability (0.54 for women and 0.46 for men). Additionally, the correlation between the male and female genetic factors was 0.64, suggesting that, in part, different sets of genes may influence variation in subjective well-being for men and women. A dual mechanism process of genetic influence upon well-being is proposed, comprising the notion of interaction between genotypes and cultural value systems.

Section snippets

Sample

The data were collected in Norway in 1992. Based on the Norwegian Birth Registry, comprising all births since 1 January 1967, a total of 3996 like- and unlike-sexed twin pairs aged 18–25 were identified and were mailed a questionnaire. Responses were obtained from 2570 (of which 2562 had valid responses on the measures studied) complete pairs (64%) and 724 twins for which their co-twin did not respond, altogether 5864 individuals (74%). Zygosity was determined on the basis of seven questions

Results

Descriptive statistics and intraclass correlations for the five subsamples (i.e. MZM, MZF, DZM, DZF, and DZU) are shown in Table 1.

Men scored, on average, higher than women (P<0.001), and MZ twins scored higher than DZ twins (P<0.001). However, neither sex nor zygosity explained more than 1% of the variance in SWB. There were no differences in variances across sex or zygosity groups.

The pattern of intraclass correlations across the sex and zygosity groups revealed greater similarity among MZs

Discussion

This study explored genetic and environmental factors in subjective well-being, and focussed specifically on sex-differences in such factors. Whereas numerous previous studies have identified different correlates and predictors of subjective well-being, little attention has been paid to the issue of genetic versus environmental contributions to human happiness. Individual variance in human phenotypes generally arise from four broad sources of influence, that is, additive genetic factors,

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