Adolescent sexual offender recidivism: success of specialized treatment and implications for risk prediction1☆,
Introduction
MANY ADULT SEXUAL offenders begin offending as adolescents and are not detected for many years—if at all Abel et al 1985, Briggs and Hawkins 1996, Elliott et al 1995, Groth et al 1982, Knight and Prentky 1993. Of course, some adolescent sexual offenders are apprehended, and approximately 20% of all people charged with a sexual offense in North America are juveniles Federal Bureau of Investigation 1993, Statistics 1997. In response to the obvious need to reduce the risk of adolescent sexual reoffending, the number of treatment programs has increased significantly in North America during the past 20 years. In the US, for example, although there was only one specialized treatment program for adolescent sexual offenders in 1975 (Knopp, 1985), there were over 600 by 1995 (Freeman-Longo, Bird, Stevenson, & Fiske, 1995).
There is notable consensus regarding the issues to be addressed in the specialized treatment of adolescent sexual offenders Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers 1997, National Adolescent Perpetrator Network 1993. Treatment goals include increasing offender accountability; assisting offenders to understand and interrupt the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that maintain sexual offending; reducing deviant sexual arousal, if present; improving family relationships; enhancing victim empathy; improving social skills; developing healthy attitudes towards sex and relationships; and reducing the offenders’ personal trauma, if present. Despite the agreement regarding treatment goals, and the recent proliferation of treatment programs, however, little is known about the success of specialized treatment.
Since the development of the first comprehensive treatment program for adolescent sexual offenders in 1975, there have been only 10 published reports of criminal recidivism following specialized treatment (see Table 1). Although sexual recidivism rates for treated offenders are below 15% across studies, there are a number of factors that make it difficult to conclude that treatment is effective. First, 8 of the 10 investigations did not include a comparison group; therefore, it is impossible to ascertain the relative impact of treatment on recidivism. Second, no investigation used a mean follow-up period beyond 4 years, and many studies had a mean follow-up period of less than 3 years. Given that sexual offenders may present a risk of reoffending for many years after treatment Furby et al 1989, Hanson et al 1993, such brief follow-up periods will necessarily result in low recidivism rates. Third, most investigators have used criminal convictions or offender self-report as the measure of recidivism. Recidivism data based on official reports are inevitably conservative estimates of sexual reoffending given that many victims never report their abuse (e.g., Statistics Canada, 1993); however, the use of criminal convictions or offender self-report is likely to produce significantly lower estimates of reoffending than the use of criminal charges (Hanson, 1997). Indeed, the sexual assault recidivism rate for treated offenders from studies in Table 1 using criminal charges is 14% (17 out of 120) whereas the recidivism rate from studies using convictions or self-report is significantly lower at 8% (52 out of 635), χ2 (1, N = 755) = 4.33, p < .05 (data from Kahn & Lafond, 1988, were excluded as the recidivism measure was unspecified in their study). Finally, although it is likely that some adolescent offenders moved to another state following treatment (all published investigations have been conducted in the United States), investigators have used only local and/or state records rather than a national registry.
In contrast to the relative dearth of follow-up studies with adolescents, there have been many published investigations of the success of specialized treatment for adult sexual offenders. Although some reviewers have noted that there is no empirical evidence to support the efficacy of specialized sexual offender treatment (e.g., Furby et al 1989, Quinsey et al 1993), others have suggested that there is at least minimal empirical support (e.g., Hall 1995, Marshall and Pithers 1994). Miner (1997) observed that methodological shortcomings make it difficult to draw conclusions regarding treatment outcome. In particular, he noted that many investigators studying the efficacy of adult sexual offender treatment have employed a single-group, follow-up design. When untreated offenders have been included, Miner noted that it is common for researchers to use nonequivalent comparison groups such as treatment dropouts or refusers. Hanson (1997) argued that if random assignment to treatment is not possible, it is important for researchers who choose to examine such “convenience” comparison groups to assess and control for pre-treatment differences between the groups on factors known to be related to recidivism. In a recent meta-analysis, Hanson and Bussière (1998) found that risk of sexual recidivism among primarily adult male sexual offenders was associated with factors related to sexual offending such as victim age (children), victim gender (male), victim relationship to offender (extrafamilial), prior sexual and nonsexual offending, and sexual preference for children. Conversely, the authors found that nonsexual reoffenses were associated with factors commonly ascribed to nonsexual recidivism (e.g., Andrews and Bonta 1994, Gendreau et al 1996). Specifically, those sexual offenders with nonsexual reoffenses tended to be younger, single, and had a history of antisocial behavior.
Although there are no comparable meta-analyses regarding sexual recidivism for adolescent sexual offenders, there is an extensive literature related to general (i.e., nonsexual) recidivism with adolescents (e.g., Farrington 1989, Loeber 1990, Moffitt 1993). Common risk factors for general recidivism among adolescents include antisocial personality, previous criminal involvement, negative self-image, economic disadvantage, parental rejection, negative parent-child relationships, interpersonal aggression, and poor social relationships.
The purpose of the present study was to examine the success of specialized adolescent sexual offender treatment by comparing subsequent recidivism rates between treated offenders and a comparison group. Although it was not possible to use random assignment at the inception of this study (in 1987), we ensured that a comprehensive battery of psychological tests was used in our clinical assessments. In addition to the clinical utility of these results, we planned to use test scores to control for any significant pre-treatment differences between the treatment and comparison groups on the variables thought to be related to recidivism.
A secondary goal of this study was to examine the predictive utility of the variables assessed with respect to both sexual and nonsexual recidivism. Given the recent focus in the literature regarding the prediction of sexual recidivism with adult sexual offenders (e.g., Hanson and Bussiere 1998, Proulx et al 1997, Quinsey et al 1995), and the absence of empirical data regarding risk prediction for adolescent sexual offenders Bonner et al 1998, Ryan 1998, we wanted to explore the relationships between a number of predictor variables and both sexual and nonsexual recidivism. We anticipated that nonsexual recidivism would be related to factors predictive of general (nonsexual) juvenile delinquency, listed above, such as history of prior offenses, antisocial personality, low self-esteem, and family relationship difficulties, for example. Based on previous research with adult sexual offenders, we expected that sexual recidivism would be related specifically to sexual-assault variables such as deviant sexual interest/behavior and victim-selection factors (i.e., victim age, gender, and relationship).
Section snippets
Treatment program
The Sexual Abuse, Family Education and Treatment (SAFE-T) Program is a specialized, community-based program that provides sexual abuse specific assessment, treatment, consultation, and long-term support to (1) child victims of incest and their families—including adult incest offenders, (2) children with sexual behavior problems and their families, and (3) adolescent sexual offenders and their families. Following comprehensive clinical and psychometric assessments, treatment plans are
Results
Before comparing recidivism rates, the Treatment group and the three Comparison groups were contrasted on a number of potentially confounding variables to ensure that the groups were not significantly different. The data related to these comparisons are presented in Table 2 (non-dichotomous variables) and Table 3 (dichotomous variables). Remarkably, there were no significant group differences on any of the factors that have been linked to the risk of sexual or nonsexual recidivism; therefore,
Discussion
Results support the efficacy of specialized community-based treatment at the SAFE-T Program for reducing the risk of adolescent sexual recidivism. Relative to the Comparison group, there was a 72% reduction in sexual recidivism for adolescents completing at least 12 months of assessment and treatment. Furthermore, although previous research has found that many treated sexual offenders are likely to be charged with subsequent nonsexual offenses, participation in specialized treatment was
Acknowledgements
This study was possible only as a result of the dedication of the staff at the SAFE-T Program and through the courage of the adolescent sexual offenders and their families. We are also grateful to the operational support of the Thistletown Regional Centre, and we thank Adrienne Perry and Sabrina Ramdeholl for their valuable comments on a previous draft.
References (81)
- et al.
Concurrent validity and psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory in outpatient adolescents
Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
(1991) - et al.
The incidence of depressive symptomatology in juvenile sex offenders with a history of abuse
Child Abuse & Neglect
(1991) - et al.
The self-report of punitive childhood experiences of young adults and adolescents
Child Abuse & Neglect
(1988) - et al.
Attitudes toward physical discipline as a function of disciplinary history and self-labeling as physically abused
Child Abuse & Neglect
(1996) - et al.
A comparison of the childhood experiences of convicted male child molesters and men who were sexually abused in childhood and claimed to be nonoffenders
Child Abuse & Neglect
(1996) - et al.
The Challenge ProjectA treatment program evaluation for perpetrators of child sexual abuse
Child Abuse & Neglect
(1997) - et al.
Child sexual abuse preventionWhat offenders tell us
Child Abuse & Neglect
(1995) Development and risk factors of juvenile antisocial behavior and delinquency
Clinical Psychology Review
(1990)- et al.
Reports of severe physical punishment and exposure to animal cruelty by inmates convicted of felonies and by university students
Child Abuse & Neglect
(1997) - et al.
Aspects of childhood physical punishment and family environment correlates in bulimia nervosa
Child Abuse & Neglect
(1995)
Adolescent sibling-incest offendersDifferences in family and individual functioning when compared to nonsibling sex offenders
Child Abuse & Neglect
Sexual offendersResults of assessment and recommendations for treatment
Manual for the Youth Self-Report and 1991 Profile
The psychology of criminal conduct
A study of juvenile sex offenders
American Journal of Psychiatry
Beck Depression Inventory manual
Treating adolescent sexual offenders
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice
Sex differences in a socioeconomic index for occupations in Canada
Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology
A revised socioeconomic index for occupations in Canada
Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology
Assessment of adolescent sexual offenders
Child Maltreatment
Multisystemic treatment of adolescent sexual offenders
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
Assessment and treatment of juvenile sex offendersAn empirical review
Journal of Child Sexual Abuse
Adolescent sex offendersInvestigating adult commitment-rates four years later
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
Serious juvenile sex offendersTreatment and long-term follow-up
Psychiatric Annals
The 1996 Safer Society Foundation Treatment Provider and Program Survey
Meta-analysis of factor analysesAn illustration using the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
An inventory for assessing different kinds of hostility
Journal of Clinical Psychology
Early predictors of adolescent aggression and adult violence
Violence and Victims
Uniform crime reports for the United States
1994 Nationwide survey of treatment programs and models
Sex offender recidivismA review
Psychological Bulletin
A meta-analysis of the predictors of adult offender recidivismWhat works!
Criminology
Californian Psychological InventoryAdministrator’s guide
An introduction to survival analysisStatistical methods for analysis of clinical trial data
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
Undetected recidivism among rapists and child molesters
Crime and Delinquency
A comparison of treatment outcomes between adolescent rapists and child sexual offenders
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
Self-reported hostility as a function of offense characteristics and response style in a sexual offender population
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
Sexual offender recidivism revisitedA meta-analysis of recent treatment studies
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
How to know what works with sexual offenders
Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment
Cited by (233)
Comparing the onset of child sexual abuse perpetration from adolescence into adulthood: Are there unique risks, and what does this mean for prevention?
2020, Child Abuse and NeglectCitation Excerpt :Current estimated lifetime prevalence rates of child sexual abuse (CSA) range between 18–20 % for girls and 7–8 % for boys, and as high as 38 % in some African countries (Pereda, Guilera, Forns, & Gómez-Benito, 2009; Stoltenborgh, van IJzendoorn, Euser, & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2011; World Health Organisation, 2014).
Safeguarding child rights and enhancing caregiver responsibilities among Canadian parents of youth who sexually offend
2018, Child Abuse and NeglectCitation Excerpt :However, Hackett et al. (2014) noted that some caregivers’ responses shifted over time with professional guidance so that they became more committed to supporting the needs of their child. Although the responsibility of caregivers whose child has engaged in sexual offending behaviour is an emerging area of study, existing findings echo other literature that has emphasized the importance of involving caregivers in the treatment of sexual offending behaviour as well as the nature of this involvement (Schmidt, 2014; Worling & Curwen, 2000; Worley et al., 2011; Yoder, Hansen, Lobanov-Rostovsky, & Ruch, 2015; Zankman & Bonomo, 2004). Moreover, the Youth Criminal Justice Act in Canada specifies that significant others (e.g., parents, extended family, community agencies) must be included in the youth’s rehabilitation (Government of Canada, 2002).
Best practice in sexual offender rehabilitation and reintegration programs
2023, Journal of Criminological Research, Policy and Practice
- ☆
This research was supported by a grant from the Toronto Area Office of Probation and Community Services, Ontario Ministry of Community and Social Services.
- 1
The views expressed in this article are the authors’ and do not necessarily represent the views of the Ontario Ministry of Community and Social Services.