Kicking, rocking, and waving: Contextual analysis of rhythmical stereotypies in normal human infants

doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(81)80146-7

Animal Behaviour

Volume 29, Issue 1, February 1981, Pages 3-11

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(81)80146-7 Get rights and content

Abstract

I analysed the triggering contexts of over 14 000 bouts of rhythmical stereotypies of the legs, arms, and whole torso observed in 20 normal infants during their first year. Infant stereotypies were elicited by a wide variety of contexts including non-alert states, interactions with the caregiver and other persons, feeding situations, object interest, and kinaesthetic changes. The frequency of stereotypy in all contexts was a function of age. Non-alert states and interactions with the caregiver were disproportionately associated with leg and torso stereotypies. The relationship between these human stereotypies and the function and control of stereotyped behaviour in other species is discussed.

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This study proposes not only to verify if the behaviors produced spontaneously by children when they are focused on a task have a positive effect on the child's performance, but it also proposes a practical methodology, usable in the whole class, i.e. without disruption for the class and the teacher, to allow children to be in the conditions that allow them to be more efficient. Spontaneous motor tempos are observed from the beginning of life (Bobin-Bègue, 2019; Provasi, Anderson, & Barbu-Roth, 2014; Thelen, 1979, Thelen, 1981). These movements, produced in the absence of any temporal clue, are known as spontaneous motor tempo: A spontaneous motor tempo is defined as a motor behavior repeated with the same interval, i.e. at the most comfortable rate for the participant (Boltz, 1994; Denner, Wapner, & Werner, 1964; Fraisse, Chambron, & Oléron, 1954).
Most children move rhythmically when they are focused on a task, whereas they are expected to remain still. Yet, Dynamic Attention Theory provides a theoretical framework to support the hypothesis that producing a spontaneous motor tempo can improve attentional performance. We therefore developed an experimental procedure designed to test this effect in the ecological context of classroom work: 64 8-year-old children participated in a 3-session, whole-class experiment. Each session began with a preliminary movement phase (spontaneous tempo with the hand or with the head or without movement). Then, in a second phase, the children completed one of three versions of the d2 attentional test. Our results showed that only the spontaneous tempo with hand condition significantly improved attentional performance. This protocol shows that it is possible to adapt teaching practices to allow children to mobilize their attention through these movements without disrupting classroom functioning.
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Stereotyped movements (“stereotypies”) are semi-voluntary repetitive movements that are a prominent clinical feature of autism spectrum disorder. They are described in first-person accounts by people with autism as relaxing and that they help focus the mind and cope in overwhelming sensory environments. Therefore, we generally recommend against techniques that aim to suppress stereotypies in individuals with autism. Further, we hypothesize that understanding the neurobiology of stereotypies could guide development of treatments to produce the benefits of stereotypies without the need to generate repetitive motor movements. Here, we link first-person reports and clinical findings with basic neuroanatomy and physiology to produce a testable model of stereotypies. We hypothesize that stereotypies improve sensory processing and attention by regulating brain rhythms, either directly from the rhythmic motor command, or via rhythmic sensory feedback generated by the movements.
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Young infants demonstrate a multitude of spontaneous movements of their bodies including arm flapping, leg kicking, and writhing body wiggles.1
The timing and coordination of infant kicking may allow for activities that facilitate learning and cognitive development.
This study examined spontaneous kicking and associations with changes in kicking during a learning paradigm in typically developing infants.
Ten healthy full-term infants participated in two experiments at 3 months of age: spontaneous kicking and the mobile paradigm. The inter-limb, intra-limb, and spatiotemporal parameters during spontaneous kicking were collected by 3D motion capture. Learning was measured in the mobile paradigm where an infant’s leg was tethered to an overhead mobile. The mobile offered visual and auditory reinforcement when the infant kicked. Changes in kicking rate indicate learning. Friedman tests were used to determine the dominant inter-/intra-limb kicking patterns. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients were used to assess the correlations between spontaneous kicking and performance in the mobile paradigm.
A significant negative correlation (r = −0.72, p = 0.03) was observed between the percentages of unilateral kicking and normalized kicking rate during the extinction phase of the paradigm. There was a trend of positive correlation (r = 0.58, p < 0.10) between dissociated hip-ankle joint coupling and the last three-minute of the acquisition phase of the paradigm.
Exploratory kicking behaviors elicited by visual and auditory feedback may be related to lower extremity movement control. Enhancing movement experience through appropriate external feedback may be critical in treatment programs to support infant development. Future studies to assess how exploratory motor behaviors contribute to development in motor and other domains are warranted.
The body communicates: Movement synchrony during music therapy with children diagnosed with ASD
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They are precursors of mature movement and probably used for internal body regulation (Kestenberg Amighi, Loman, & Sossin, 2018). Thelen’s studies (1979, 1980, 1981a, 1981b) were the first to examine primary stereotypies among neurotypicals. In her studies, stereotypies were characterized as repetitive high-frequency movements that usually appear in the limbs, torso or head (e.g., kicking, jumping, swinging, waving, rubbing, and scratching).
Children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) have difficulties with social communication and relational interactions as well as repetitive and stereotypical movements. Based on the assumption that movement synchrony can be used to enhance social skills, this study examines the synchrony of body rhythms between children with ASD and their music therapists. A computerized diagnostic for calculating body synchrony characteristics, based on the Kestenberg Movement Profile, was developed. Data collection took place over a period of 20 weeks. The participants had been recruited for a large international controlled trial study where ‘improvisational music therapy’ was used as music therapy approach. The methods in the current study included microanalysis of video footage of nineteen 4- to 6-year-old children diagnosed with ASD. The results revealed higher levels of synchrony between the therapists and children when the latter were using repetitive rhythmicity that occurred 2 or more times per second. At the end of the treatment, there was no significant change in autistic symptoms and in the children's ability to synchronize with the therapists, although the therapists were significantly more synchronize with the children. We discuss the possible role of music therapists in promoting experiences for children through the use of basic body rhythmicity patterns.
Rhythmic rocking stereotypies in frontal lobe seizures: A quantified video study
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From a hierarchical perspective of nervous system organization, abnormal triggering of innate movement patterns may occur by top-down “release” due to transiently altered dynamics within topographically organized cortico-subcortical motor control circuits [36], as has been suggested for some other seizure patterns involving “programmed” behaviors (e.g. rhythmic movements related to locomotion or mastication) [15]. From an ontogenetic perspective, fetal somersaults around the transverse axis occur from around 12 weeks’ gestation [9]; in addition, rhythmic stereotypies seem to play a specific developmental role in normal infants, with rhythmic trunk movements occurring mainly between 6 and 12 months of age [39]. Phylogenetically, rhythmic spinal flexion underlies rectilinear locomotion in some limbless vertebrates [17].
Rhythmic, stereotyped movements occur in some epileptic seizures. We aimed to document time-evolving frequencies of antero-posterior rocking occurring during prefrontal seizures, using a quantitative video analysis.
Six seizures from 3 patients with prefrontal epilepsy yet different sublobar localizations were analyzed using a deep learning-based head-tracking method.
Mean rocking frequency varied between patients and seizures (0.37–1.0 Hz). Coefficient of variation of frequency was low (≤ 12%).
Regularity of body rocking movements suggests a mechanism involving intrinsic oscillatory generators. Since localization of seizure onset varied within prefrontal cortex across patients, altered dynamics converging on a “final common pathway” of seizure propagation involving cortico-subcortical circuits is hypothesized.
The effect of a short bout of practice on reaching behavior in late preterm infants at the onset of reaching: A randomized controlled trial
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Citation Excerpt :
Thus, in this study, the guided experience of perceiving and self-producing actions successfully at an age at which the infants start discovering a new way to act upon objects (i.e., reaching) may have temporarily facilitated perception-action matching and motivated the infants to perform more attempts. Thelen's work showed that as infants become aroused, they may be more energetic and tend to move and kick more (Thelen & Smith, 1994; Thelen, Bradshaw, & Ward, 1981; Thelen, Fisher, Ridley-Johnson, & Griffin, 1982; Thelen, 1981). The late preterm infants, however, did not learn from the reaching practice in this study (i.e., no retention), suggesting that familiarity to the task during the experiment may have brought them in a better energetic state, thus arousing them to reach more, but insufficiently long to make more permanent changes in their reaching behavior.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a short bout of practice on reaching behavior in late preterm infants at the onset of goal-directed reaching. The study was designed as a blind, three-arm parallel-group, randomized controlled, clinical trial. Thirty-six late preterm infants were recruited from a maternity hospital and allocated according to computer generated randomization into groups that received reaching practice based on either a blocked schedule, a serial schedule, or no practice. Practice consisted of a 4 min session of induced reaching using a toy in three activities guided by a physical therapist. The activities were elicited in separate blocks for the blocked practice group and in a pre-established order for the serial practice group. The control group stayed in the physical therapist's lap but was not stimulated to reach. The infants were assessed 3.3 ± 1.4 days after the onset of goal-directed reaching in three tests: pre-test (immediately before practice), post-test (immediately after practice), and retention test (24 h after post-test). During assessments, the infants were seated in a baby chair and a toy was presented at his/her midline within reaching distance for 2 min. Changes in the number of reaches, proportions of uni/bimanual reaches and kinematic parameters of reaching were main outcome measures. From pre- to post-test, the amount of reaches and bimanual reaches increased in the serial practice group, but the increase was not maintained in the retention test. Kinematic parameters were not affected by practice. Changes in the reaching behavior of late preterm infants can be triggered after the first few minutes of toy-oriented experience based on a serial practice schedule. These changes are not consolidated one day later.

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Kicking, rocking, and waving: Contextual analysis of rhythmical stereotypies in normal human infants

Abstract

Anim. Behav.

Ethol. Sociobiol.

Observational study of behaviour: sampling methods

Behaviour

Arousal and the causation of behaviour