Skip to main content
Log in

Addressing Specific Forms of Bullying: A Large-Scale Evaluation of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program

  • Original Article
  • Published:
International Journal of Bullying Prevention Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (OBPP) in reducing specific forms of bullying—verbal bullying, physical bullying, and indirect/relational bullying, as well as cyberbullying and bullying using words or gestures with a sexual meaning. This large-scale longitudinal study, which involved more than 30,000 students in grades 3–11 from 95 schools in central and western Pennsylvania over the course of 3 years, employed a quasi-experimental extended age-cohort design to examine self-reports of being bullied, as well as bullying others. Findings revealed that the OBPP was successful in reducing all forms of being bullied and bullying others. Analyses by grade groupings (grades 3–5, 6–8, and 9–11) revealed that, with only a few exceptions, there were significant program effects for all forms of bullying for all grade groupings. For most analyses, program effects were stronger the longer the program was in place. Most analyses indicated similar and substantial effects for both boys and girls, but a number of program by gender interactions were observed. Program effects for Black and White students were similar for most forms of being bullied and bullying others. Although Hispanic students showed results that paralleled the development for Black and White students for particular grade groups and variables, they were overall somewhat weaker. The study provided strong support for the effectiveness of the OBPP among students in elementary, middle, and early high school grades. Program effects were broad, substantial, and largely consistent, covering all forms of bullying—verbal, physical, indirect, bullying through sexual words and gestures, and, with somewhat weaker effects, cyberbullying—both with regard to being bullied and bullying others. Strengths and limitations of the study, as well as future research directions, are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bauer, N. S., Lozano, P., & Rivara, F. P. (2007). The effectiveness of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program in public middle schools: a controlled trial. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40, 266–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.10.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breivik, K., & Olweus, D. (2015). An item response theory analysis of the Olweus Bullying scale. Aggressive Behavior, 41, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21571.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J., Espelage, D. L., Twemlow, S. W., Berkowitz, M. W., & Comer, J. P. (2015). Rethinking effective bully and violence prevention efforts: promoting healthy school climates, positive youth development, and preventing bully-victim-bystander behavior. International Journal of Violence and schools, 15(1), 2–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, R. C., Williams, K. R., Guerra, N. G., Kim, T. E., & Sadek, S. (2010). Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: a meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology Quarterly, 25, 65–83. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Espelage, D. L., King, M. T., & Colbert, C. L. (2018). Emotional intelligence and school-based bullying prevention and intervention. In Emotional Intelligence in Education (pp. 217–242). Springer.

  • Evans, C. B., Fraser, M. W., & Cotter, K. L. (2014). The effectiveness of school-based bullying prevention programs: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19(5), 532–544. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12060.

  • Gladden, R. M., Vivolo-Kantor, A. M., Hamburger, M. E., & Lumpkin, C. D. (2014). Bullying surveillance among youths: uniform definitions for public health and recommended data elements, version 1.0. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and U.S. Department of Education.

  • Heck, R. H., & Thomas, S. L. (2015). An introduction to multilevel modelling techniques: MLM and SEM approaches using Mplus. New York: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hedges, L. (2007). Effect sizes in cluster-randomized designs. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 32, 341–370. https://doi.org/10.3102/1076998606298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hedges, L. (2011). Effect sizes in three-level cluster-randomized experiments. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 36, 346–380. https://doi.org/10.3102/10769986103766.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hong, J. S., & Espelage, D. L. (2012). A review of research on bullying and peer victimization in school: an ecological system analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(4), 311–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Judd, C. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1981). Estimating the effects of social interventions. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kallestad, J. H., Olweus, D., & Alsaker, F. (1998). School climate reports from Norwegian teachers: a methodological and substantive study. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 9, 70–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/0924345980090104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Limber, S. P., & Olweus, D. (2017). Lessons learned from scaling-up the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program. In C. Bradshaw (Ed.), Handbook on bullying prevention: a life course perspective (pp. 189–199). Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Limber, S. P., Nation, M., Tracy, A. J., Melton, G. B., & Flerx, V. (2004). Implementation of the Olweus Bullying Prevention programme in the southeastern United States. In P. K. Smith, D. Pepler, & K. Rigby (Eds.), Bullying in schools: how successful can interventions be? (pp. 55–79). Cambridge: Cambridge Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Limber, S. P., Agatston, P. W., & Kowalski, R. M. (2008). Cyber bullying: a prevention curriculum for grades 6–12. Center City: Hazelden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Limber, S. P., Agatston, P. W., & Kowalski, R. (2009). Cyber bullying: a prevention curriculum for grades 3–5. Center City: Hazelden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Limber, S. P., Olweus, D., Wang, W., Masiello, M., & Breivik, K. (2018). Evaluation of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program: a large scale study of U.S. students in grades 3-11. Journal of School Psychology, 69(4), 5672.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masiello, M. G., & Schroeder, D. (2014). A public health approach to bullying prevention. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Musu-Gillette, L., Zhang, A., Wang, K., Zhang, J., Kemp, J., Diliberti, M., and Oudekerk, B.A. (2018). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2017 (NCES 2018-036/NCJ 251413). National Center for education statistics, U.S. Department of Education, and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. Washington, DC.

  • Muthen, B. O., & Asparouhov, T. (2012). Bayesian structural equation modeling: a more flexible representation of substantive theory. Psychological Methods, 17, 313–335. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026802

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2012). Mplus User’s Guide, 7th Ed. Los Angeles: Muthén and Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2016). Preventing bullying through science, policy, and practice. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (1973). Hackkycklingar och översittare. Forskning om skolmobbing. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wicksell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (1978). Aggression in the schools: bullies and whipping boys. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (1991). Bully/victim problems among schoolchildren: basic facts and effects of a school based intervention program. In D. J. Pepler & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 411–448). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: what we know and what we can do. New York: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (1996). The Revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire. Mimeo. Bergen, Norway: Research Center for Health Promotion, University of Bergen.

  • Olweus, D. (1997). Bully/victim problems in school: facts and intervention. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 12, 495–510. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03172807.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (2005). A useful evaluation design, and effects of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program. Psychology, Crime & Law, 11, 389–402. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683160500255471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (2007a). Olweus bullying questionnaire. Center City: Hazelden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (2007b). Olweus bullying questionnaire: standard school report. Center City: Hazelden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (2010). Understanding and researching bullying: some critical issues. In S. S. Jimerson, S. M. Swearer, & D. L. Espelage (Eds.), Handbook of bullying in schools: an international perspective (pp. 9–33). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (2013). School bullying: development and some important challenges. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 751–780. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185516.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D., & Kallestad, J. H. (2010). The Olweus Bullying Prevention Program: effects of classroom components at different grade levels. In K. Osterman (Ed.), Indirect and direct aggression (pp. 113–131). New York: Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D., & Limber, S. P. (2010a). Bullying in school: evaluation and dissemination of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80, 124–134. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01015.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D., & Limber, S. P. (2010b). The Olweus Bullying Prevention Program: implementation and evaluation over two decades. In S. R. Jimerson, S. M. Swearer, & D. L. Espelage (Eds.), Handbook of bullying in schools: An international perspective (pp. 377–401). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D., Limber, S. P., Flerx, V., Mullin, N., Riese, J., & Snyder, M. (2007). Olweus Bullying Prevention Program: schoolwide guide. Center City: Hazelden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D., Solberg, M.,& Breivik, K. (2018). Long-term school-level effects of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (OBPP). Scandinavian Journal of Psychology (online).

  • Salmivalli, C., Kärnä, A., & Poskiparta, E. (2011). Counteracting bullying in Finland: the KiVa program and its effects on different forms of being bullied. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(5), 405–411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental design for generalized causal inference. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snijders, T. A. B., & Bosker, R. J. (2012). Multilevel analysis (2nd edition). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solberg, M. E., & Olweus, D. (2003). Prevalence estimation of school bullying with the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire. Aggressive Behavior, 29, 239–268. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.10047.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spybrook, J., Bloom, H., Congdon, H. Hill, C., Martinez, A., Raudenbush, S. (2011). Optimal design plus empirical evidence: documentation for the “Optimal Design” software. Retrieved from: http://hlmsoft.net/od/od-manual-20111016-v300.pdf Google Scholar.

  • Ttofi, M., & Farrington, D. (2009). What works in preventing bullying: effective elements of programmes. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 1, 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/17596599200900003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2011). Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: a systematic and meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 7, 27–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-010-9109-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ttofi, M. M., Farrington, D. P., Lösel, F., & Loeber, R. (2011). Do the victims of school bullies tend to become depressed later in life? A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 3, 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1108/17596591111132873.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ttofi, M. M., Farrington, D. P., & Lösel, F. (2012). School bullying as a predictor of violence later in life: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective longitudinal studies. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17, 405–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.05.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, W. (2013). Bullying among U.S. school children: An examination of race/ethnicity and school-level variables on bullying (Order No. 3592547). Available from Dissertations & Theses @ Clemson University. (1437006141). Retrieved from http://libproxy.clemson.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.libproxy.clemson.edu/docview/1437006141?accountid=6167.

  • Weisberg, H. I. (1979). Statistical adjustments and uncontrolled studies. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 1149–1164. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.5.1149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williford, A., Elledge, L. C., Boulton, A. J., DePaolis, K. J., Little, T. D., & Salmivalli, C. (2013). Effects of the KiVa antibullying program on cyberbullying and cybervictimization frequency among Finnish youth. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 42, 820–833.

  • Woods, S., & Wolke, D. (2003). Does the content of anti-bullying policies inform us about the prevalence of direct and relational bullying behaviour in primary schools? Educational Psychology, 23, 381–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Susan P. Limber.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Olweus, D., Limber, S.P. & Breivik, K. Addressing Specific Forms of Bullying: A Large-Scale Evaluation of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program. Int Journal of Bullying Prevention 1, 70–84 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-019-00009-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-019-00009-7

Keywords

Navigation