Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Transfer and Motivation After Cognitive Control Training for Remitted Depression in Healthy Sample

  • Original Research
  • Published:
Journal of Cognitive Enhancement Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Given that cognitive control deficits following remission from depression form a risk factor for recurrence, new interventions aimed at improving cognitive control such as cognitive control training are being developed. Previous studies suggest that motivation and engagement can influence the effectiveness of cognitive training. As such, we developed a gamified cognitive control training procedure. Before validating this tool in a clinical sample, a convenience sample was used to ensure that gamification did not add any unwanted side effects to the cognitive training procedure. This study was pre-registered on the Open Science Framework (osf.io/5yacs). Following a baseline assessment, participants were assigned to one of four training conditions, manipulating training task (cognitive control vs. active control) and gamification level (low vs. high). Having performed 10 sessions, participants were invited for a post-training assessment. The impact of gamification on cognitive transfer, motivation, and emotional transfer was investigated. Our results suggest task-specific cognitive transfer. In line with our hypotheses, gamification level did not affect cognitive transfer while beneficially impacting motivation. Moreover, beneficial effects of gamified cognitive control training were found for self-reported anxiety levels, in the absence of effects on the other clinical outcomes. This study showed that the newly developed gamified cognitive control training procedure yields similar effects as non-gamified cognitive control training. However, the advantage of this newly developed version is that it is more user-friendly, easy-to-use, online, and that its settings maximize user motivation and engagement, potentially enabling a more effective training.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The results were similar for all analyses except for one. When including these six participants, there was no longer a significant impact of gamification on Expectancy (F(1, 148) = 3.73; p = 0.055; ηp2 = 0.03).

References

  • Anaya, C., Aran, A. M., Ayuso-Mateos, J. L., Wykes, T., Vieta, E., & Scott, J. (2012). A systematic review of cognitive remediation for schizo-affective and affective disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 142(1–3), 13–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, M. P., Ross, M., Murray, C., O'Caŕroll, R. E., Ebmeier, K. P., & Goodwin, G. M. (1992). Cognitive function in major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 25(1), 21–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, T. T., & Ford, J. K. (1988). Transfer of training: a review and directions for future research. Personnel Psychology, 41(1), 63–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, T. T., Ford, J. K., & Blume, B. D. (2009). Transfer of training 1988–2008: an updated review and agenda for future research. International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 24(1), 41–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baxter, L. R., Schwartz, J. M., Phelps, M. E., Mazziotta, J. C., Guze, B. H., Selin, C. E., ... & Sumida, R. M. (1989). Reduction of prefrontal cortex glucose metabolism common to three types of depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46(3), 243–250.

  • Bench, C. J., Friston, K. J., Brown, R. G., Scott, L. C., Frackowiak, R. S., & Dolan, R. J. (1992). The anatomy of melancholia–focal abnormalities of cerebral blood flow in major depression. Psychological Medicine, 22(3), 607–615.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bobko, P., Roth, P. L., & Bobko, C. (2001). Correcting the effect size of d for range restriction and unreliability. Organizational Research Methods, 4(1), 46–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowie, C. R., Gupta, M., Holshausen, K., Jokic, R., Best, M., & Milev, R. (2013). Cognitive remediation for treatment-resistant depression: effects on cognition and functioning and the role of online homework. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 201(8), 680–685.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brehmer, Y., Rieckmann, A., Bellander, M., Westerberg, H., Fischer, H., & Bäckman, L. (2011). Neural correlates of training-related working-memory gains in old age. Neuroimage, 58(4), 1110–1120.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, A. W., & Otto, M. W. (2013). Testing the boundaries of computerized cognitive control training on symptoms of obsessive compulsive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 37, 587–594. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-012-9496-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, A. W., McMorran, K. E., Siegle, G. J., & Otto, M. W. (2015). The effects of computerized cognitive control training on community adults with depressed mood. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 43(5), 578–589.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Beurs, E., Van Dyck, R., Marquenie, L. A., Lange, A., & Blonk, R. W. (2001). De DASS: een vragenlijst voor het meten van depressie, angst en stress. Gedragstherapie, 34(1), 35–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Raedt, R., & Koster, E. H. (2010). Understanding vulnerability for depression from a cognitive neuroscience perspective: a reappraisal of attentional factors and a new conceptual framework. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 10(1), 50–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demeyer, I., De Lissnyder, E., Koster, E. H., & De Raedt, R. (2012). Rumination mediates the relationship between impaired cognitive control for emotional information and depressive symptoms: a prospective study in remitted depressed adults. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50(5), 292–297.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deterding, S., Dixon, D., Khaled, R., & Nacke, L. (2011). From game design elements to gamefulness: defining gamification. In Proceedings of the 15th international academic MindTrek conference: Envisioning future media environments (pp. 9–15). ACM.

  • Deveau, J., Jaeggi, S. M., Zordan, V., Phung, C., & Seitz, A. R. (2015). How to build better memory training games. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8, 243.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Devilly, G. J., & Borkovec, T. D. (2000). Psychometric properties of the credibility/expectancy questionnaire. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 31(2), 73–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dimitrov, D. M., & Rumrill, P. D., Jr. (2003). Pretest-posttest designs and measurement of change. Work, 20(2), 159–165.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dougherty, M. R., Hamovitz, T., & Tidwell, J. W. (2016). Reevaluating the effectiveness of n-back training on transfer through the Bayesian lens: support for the null. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(1), 306–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drevets, W. C. (2000). Neuroimaging studies of mood disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 48(8), 813–829.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foroughi, C. K., Monfort, S. S., Paczynski, M., McKnight, P. E., & Greenwood, P. M. (2016). Placebo effects in cognitive training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 201601243.

  • Fritz, C. O., Morris, P. E., & Richler, J. J. (2012). Effect size estimates: current use, calculations, and interpretation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141(1), 2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gotlib, I. H., & Joormann, J. (2010). Cognition and depression: current status and future directions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6, 285–312.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gronwall, D. M. A. (1977). Paced auditory serial-addition task: a measure of recovery from concussion. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 44(2), 367–373.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, R., & Salas, E. (2011). The transfer of training: what really matters. International Journal of Training and Development, 15(2), 103–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartman, C. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (2001). Dutch translation of the adult temperament questionnaire. Groningen: Department of Psychiatry, Internal publication ARIADNE research group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, G. E., Rae, B., Nesbitt, K. V., & Brown, S. D. (2013). Gamelike features might not improve data. Behavior Research Methods, 45(2), 301–318.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoorelbeke, K., & Koster, E. H. (2017). Internet-delivered cognitive control training as a preventive intervention for remitted depressed patients: evidence from a double-blind randomized controlled trial study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 85(2), 135.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoorelbeke, K., Koster, E. H., Vanderhasselt, M. A., Callewaert, S., & Demeyer, I. (2015). The influence of cognitive control training on stress reactivity and rumination in response to a lab stressor and naturalistic stress. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 69, 1–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoorelbeke, K., Koster, E. H., Demeyer, I., Loeys, T., & Vanderhasselt, M. A. (2016). Effects of cognitive control training on the dynamics of (mal) adaptive emotion regulation in daily life. Emotion, 16(7), 945.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iacoviello, B., Huryk, K., Alvarez, E., Collins, K., Murrough, J., Iosifescu, D., & Charney, D. (2014). Cognitive-emotional training as an intervention for major depressive disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 75(9), 119S–119S.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacques, R. D. (1996). The nature of engagement and its role in hypermedia evaluation and design (Doctoral dissertation, South Bank University).

  • Jaeggi, S. M., Seewer, R., Nirkko, A. C., Eckstein, D., Schroth, G., Groner, R., & Gutbrod, K. (2003). Does excessive memory load attenuate activation in the prefrontal cortex? Load-dependent processing in single and dual tasks: functional magnetic resonance imaging study. NeuroImage, 19(2), 210–225.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Perrig, W. J. (2008). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(19), 6829–6833. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0801268105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaeggi, S. M., Studer-Luethi, B., Buschkuehl, M., Su, Y. F., Jonides, J., & Perrig, W. J. (2010). The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning—implications for training and transfer. Intelligence, 38(6), 625–635.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Shah, P., & Jonides, J. (2014). The role of individual differences in cognitive training and transfer. Memory & Cognition, 42(3), 464–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katz, B., Jaeggi, S., Buschkuehl, M., Stegman, A., & Shah, P. (2014). Differential effect of motivational features on training improvements in school-based cognitive training. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 242.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Katz, B., Jones, M. R., Shah, P., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2016). Individual differences and motivational effects. In Cognitive training (pp. 157–166). Cham: Springer.

  • Khatib, F., DiMaio, F., Cooper, S., Kazmierczyk, M., Gilski, M., Krzywda, S., ... & Jaskolski, M. (2011). Crystal structure of a monomeric retroviral protease solved by protein folding game players. Nature Structural & Molecular Biology, 18(10), 1175.

  • Kirchner, W. K. (1958). Age differences in short-term retention of rapidly changing information. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55(4), 352.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koster, E. H. W., Hoorelbeke, K., Onraedt, T., Owens, M., & Derakshan, N. (2017). Cognitive control interventions for depression: a systematic review of findings from training studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 53, 79–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.02.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazeron, R. H., Rombouts, S. A., deSonneville, L., Barkhof, F., & Scheltens, P. (2003). A paced visual serial addition test for fMRI. Journal of Neurological Science, 213, 29–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levens, S. M., & Gotlib, I. H. (2015). Updating emotional content in recovered depressed individuals: evaluating deficits in emotion processing following a depressive episode. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 48, 156–163.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Looyestyn, J., Kernot, J., Boshoff, K., Ryan, J., Edney, S., & Maher, C. (2017). Does gamification increase engagement with online programs? A systematic review. PLoS One, 12(3), e0173403.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335–343.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lumsden, J., Edwards, E. A., Lawrence, N. S., Coyle, D., & Munafò, M. R. (2016). Gamification of cognitive assessment and cognitive training: a systematic review of applications and efficacy. JMIR Serious Games, 4(2).

  • McAuley, E., Duncan, T., & Tammen, V. V. (1989). Psychometric properties of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory in a competitive sport setting: a confirmatory factor analysis. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 60(1), 48–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mohammed, S., Flores, L., Deveau, J., Hoffing, R. C., Phung, C., Parlett, C. M., ... & Zordan, V. (2017). The benefits and challenges of implementing motivational features to boost cognitive training outcome. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1(4), 491–507.

  • Moshier, S. J. (2015). Cognitive control training as an adjunct to behavioral activation therapy in the treatment of depression. Boston University.

  • Moshier, S. J., Molokotos, E. K., Stein, A. T., & Otto, M. W. (2015). Assessing the effects of depressed mood and cognitive control training on memory confidence and accuracy following repeated checking. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 8(3), 206–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Motter, J. N., Pimontel, M. A., Rindskopf, D., Devanand, D. P., Doraiswamy, P. M., & Sneed, J. R. (2016). Computerized cognitive training and functional recovery in major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 189, 184–191.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(1), 115.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O'Brien, H. L., & Toms, E. G. (2010). The development and evaluation of a survey to measure user engagement. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 61(1), 50–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owen, A. M., McMillan, K. M., Laird, A. R., & Bullmore, E. (2005). N-back working memory paradigm: a meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies. Human Brain Mapping, 25, 46–59. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20131.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Paelecke-Habermann, Y., Pohl, J., & Leplow, B. (2005). Attention and executive functions in remitted major depression patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 89(1–3), 125–135.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parish-Morris, J., Mahajan, N., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., & Collins, M. F. (2013). Once upon a time: parent–child dialogue and storybook reading in the electronic era. Mind, Brain, and Education, 7(3), 200–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Porter, R. J., Bowie, C. R., Jordan, J., & Malhi, G. S. (2013). Cognitive remediation as a treatment for major depression: a rationale, review of evidence and recommendations for future research. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 47(12), 1165–1175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riddle, M., & Science of Behavior Change Working Group. (2015). News from the NIH: using an experimental medicine approach to facilitate translational research.

  • Robertson, I. H., & Murre, J. M. (1999). Rehabilitation of brain damage: brain plasticity and principles of guided recovery. Psychological Bulletin, 125(5), 544.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., & Evans, D. E. (2000). Temperament and personality: origins and outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(1), 122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M. (1982). Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere: an extension of cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(3), 450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sala, G., Aksayli, N. D., Tatlidil, K. S., Tatsumi, T., Gondo, Y., & Gobet, F. (2019). Near and far transfer in cognitive training: a second-order meta-analysis. Fifth version of the preprint.

  • Schwaighofer, M., Fischer, F., & Bühner, M. (2015). Does working memory training transfer? A meta-analysis including training conditions as moderators. Educational Psychologist, 50(2), 138–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Segrave, R. A., Arnold, S., Hoy, K., & Fitzgerald, P. B. (2014). Concurrent cognitive control training augments the antidepressant efficacy of tDCS: a pilot study. Brain Stimulation, 7(2), 325–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2013.12.008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shilyansky, C., Williams, L. M., Gyurak, A., Harris, A., Usherwood, T., & Etkin, A. (2016). Effect of antidepressant treatment on cognitive impairments associated with depression: a randomised longitudinal study. The Lancet Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)00012-2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Siegle, G. J., Ghinassi, F., & Thase, M. E. (2007). Neurobehavioral therapies in the 21st century: summary of an emerging field and an extended example of cognitive control training for depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 31(2), 235–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegle, G. J., Price, R. B., Jones, N. P., Ghinassi, F., Painter, T., & Thase, M. E. (2014). You gotta work at it: pupillary indices of task focus are prognostic for response to a neurocognitive intervention for rumination in depression. Clinical Psychological Science, 2(4), 455–471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Studer-Luethi, B., Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., & Perrig, W. J. (2012). Influence of neuroticism and conscientiousness on working memory training outcome. Personality and Individual Differences, 53(1), 44–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thom, J., Millen, D., & DiMicco, J. (2012). Removing gamification from an enterprise SNS. In Proceedings of the acm 2012 conference on computer supported cooperative work (pp. 1067–1070). ACM.

  • Tombaugh, T. N. (2006). A comprehensive review of the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT). Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21, 53–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2005.05.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: a psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(3), 247–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trushell, J., & Maitland, A. (2005). Primary pupils’ recall of interactive storybooks on CD-ROM: inconsiderate interactive features and forgetting. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(1), 57–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vervaeke, J., Van Looy, J., Hoorelbeke, K., Baeken, C., & Koster, E.W.H. (2018). Gamified cognitive control training for remitted depressed individuals: user requirements analysis. JMIR Serious Games, 6(2).

  • Wanmaker, S., Geraerts, E., & Franken, I. H. A. (2015). A working memory training to decrease rumination in depressed and anxious individuals: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. Journal of Affective Disorders, 175, 310–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.12.027.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westerberg, H., Brehmer, Y., D’Hondt, N., Söderman, D., & Bäckman, L. (2008). Computerized training of working memory: a controlled, randomized trial. In Poster presented at the meeting of the Cognitive Neuroscience Society, San Francisco, CA.

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Sara De Witte and Alexander Goldhoorn for their help with data collection. This research was supported by an Applied Biomedical (TBM) grant of the Agency for Innovation through Science and Technology (IWT), part of the Research Foundation–Flanders (FWO), awarded to the PrevenD project (B/14730/01). KH is a Postdoctoral Fellow of the FWO (FWO.3EO.2018.0031.01). No competing financial interests exist.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 2, Ghent, Belgium

    Jasmien Vervaeke, Kristof Hoorelbeke & Ernst H. W. Koster

  2. imec-mict-Ghent University, Miriam Makebaplein 1, Ghent, Belgium

    Jasmien Vervaeke

  3. Department of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology, University Hospital Ghent, Ghent University, De Pintelaan 185, Ghent, Belgium

    Chris Baeken

  4. Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital Brussels, Brussels, Belgium

    Chris Baeken

  5. Ghent Experimental Psychiatry (GHEP) Lab, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

    Chris Baeken

  6. ML6, Ghent, Belgium

    Jan Van Looy

Authors
  1. Jasmien Vervaeke
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kristof Hoorelbeke
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Chris Baeken
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jan Van Looy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Ernst H. W. Koster
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jasmien Vervaeke.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

ESM 1

(DOCX 42 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Vervaeke, J., Hoorelbeke, K., Baeken, C. et al. Transfer and Motivation After Cognitive Control Training for Remitted Depression in Healthy Sample. J Cogn Enhanc 4, 49–61 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-019-00135-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-019-00135-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation