Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Adding Mindfulness to an Evidence-Based Reading Intervention for a Student with SLD: a Pilot Study

  • Published:
Contemporary School Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Students with specific learning disability (SLD) are at a greater risk for reading difficulties, academic stress, and deficits in self-efficacy. There are several research-supported interventions used in schools that are effective in increasing reading skills (e.g., reading fluency) but do not explicitly address academic stress or deficient self-efficacy. A possible solution may be the addition of mindfulness techniques, as they have been shown to support a wide range of related student outcomes. Incorporating mindfulness through an app-based delivery approach may be beneficial in this scenario as they are low cost, easily accessible, and a simple tool to help meet the unique social-emotional and academic needs of students with SLD. The current study examined the extent to which adding a brief, app-based mindfulness intervention to an already established evidence-based reading fluency intervention (paired reading) would improve reading fluency, academic stress, and self-efficacy for a student with an SLD in reading.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Altani, A., Protopapas, A., Katopodi, K., & Georgiou, G. K. (2020). From individual word recognition to word list and text reading fluency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(1), 22–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ang, R. P., & Huan, V. S. (2006). Relationship between academic stress and suicidal ideation: testing for depression as a mediator using multiple regression. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 37(2), 133–143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Axelrod, M. I. (2017). Behavior analysis for school psychologists. Routledge.

  • Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman and Company.

  • Bandura, A. (2006). Toward a psychology of human agency. Perspectives on Human Science, 1, 164–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bashir, A. S., & Hook, P. E. (2009). Fluency: a key link between word identification and comprehension. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 40(2), 196–200.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beauchemin, J., Hutchins, T. L., & Patterson, F. (2008). Mindfulness meditation may lessen anxiety, promote social skills, and improve academic performance among adolescents with learning disabilities. Complementary Health Practice Review, 13(1), 34–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bedewy, D., & Gabriel, A. (2015). Examining perceptions of academic stress and its sources among university students: the perception of Academic Stress Scale. Health Psychology Open, 2, 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bennike, I. H., Wieghorst, A., & Kirk, U. (2017). Online-based mindfulness training reduces behavioral markers of mind wandering. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1, 172–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bostock, S., Crosswell, A. D., Prather, A. A., & Steptoe, A. (2019). Mindfulness on-the-go: effects of a mindfulness meditation app on work stress and well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 24(1), 127–138.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Butler, D. L., & Schnellert, L. (2015). Success for students with learning disabilities: what does self-regulation have to do with it? In T. Cleary (Ed.), Self-regulated learning interventions with at-risk youth: enhancing adaptability, performance and well-being (pp. 89-112). APA Press.

  • Callan, G. L., & Cleary, T. J. (2018). Multidimensional assessment of self-regulated learning with middle school math students. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(1), 103–111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Callan, G. L., Rubenstein, L. D., Ridgley, L. M., & McCall, J. R. (2019). Measuring self-regulated learning during creative problem-solving with SRL microanalysis. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. Advance online publication.

  • Chard, D. J., Vaughn, S., & Tyler, B. (2002). A synthesis of research on effective interventions for building reading fluency with elementary students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(5), 386–406.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Christ, T. J., & Silberglitt, B. (2007). Estimates of the standard error of measurement for curriculum-based measures of oral reading fluency. School Psychology Review, 36(1), 130–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christ, T. J., Arañas, Y. A., Johnson, L., Kember, J. M., Kilgus, S., Kiss, A. J., McCarthy-Trentman, A. M., Monaghen, B. D., Nelson, G., Nelson, P., Newell, K. W., Van Norman, E. R., & White, M. J. (2018). Formative assessment system for teachers: Technical manual. Author and FastBridge Learning.

  • Cleary, T. J., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2001). Self-regulation differences during athletic practice by experts, non-experts, and novices. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13, 185–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cleary, T. J., Callan, G. L., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2012). Assessing self-regulation as a cyclical, context specific phenomenon: overview and analysis of SRL microanalytic protocols. Education Research International, 1–19.

  • Cleary, T. J., Callan, G. L., Malatesta, J., & Adams, T. (2015). Examining the level of convergence among self-regulated learning microanalytic processes, achievement, and a self-report questionnaire. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 33(5), 439–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conley, K. M., & Lehman, B. J. (2012). Test anxiety and cardiovascular responses to daily academic stressors. Stress and Health, 28, 41–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cortiella, C., & Horowitz, S. H. (2014). The state of learning disabilities: facts, trends and emerging issues. National Center for Learning Disabilities.

  • DeSteno, D., Lim, D., Duong, F., Condon, P. (2018) Meditation inhibits aggressive responses to provocations. Mindfulness, 9(4):1117–1122. 

  • DiBenedetto, M. K., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2010). Differences in self-regulatory processes among students studying science: a microanalytic investigation. International Journal of Educational & Psychological Assessment, 5(1), 2–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dudley, A. M. (2005). Rethinking reading fluency for struggling adolescent readers. Beyond Behavior, 15(2), 16–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Economides, M., Martman, J., Bell, M. J., & Sanderson, B. (2018). Improvements in stress, affect, and irritability following brief use of a mindfulness-based smartphone app: a randomized controlled trial. Mindfulness, 9(5), 1584–1593.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Felver, J. C., Frank, J. L., & McEachern, A. D. (2014). Effectiveness, acceptability, and feasibility of the soles of the feet mindfulness-based intervention with elementary school students. Mindfulness, 5(5), 589–597.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Felver, J. C., Celis-de Hoyos, C. E., Tezanos, K., & Singh, N. N. (2016). A systematic review of mindfulness-based interventions for youth in school settings. Mindfulness, 7, 34–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L., & Burish, P. (2000). Peer-assisted learning strategies: an evidence-based practice to promote reading achievement. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15(2), 85–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gans, A. M., Kenny, M. C., & Ghany, D. L. (2003). Comparing the self-concept of students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(3), 287–295.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gickling, E. E., & Armstrong, D. L. (1978). Levels of instructional difficulty as related to on-task behavior, task completion, and comprehension. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 559–566.

  • Hanley, A. W., Palejwala, M. H., Hanley, R. T., Canto, A. I., & Garland, E. L. (2015). A failure in mind: dispositional mindfulness and positive reappraisal as predictors of academic self-efficacy following failure. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 332–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, S. R., Kemmerling, R. L., & North, M. M. (2002). Brief virtual reality therapy for public speaking anxiety. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 5, 543–550.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hasbrouck, J. & Tindal, G. (2017). An update to compiled ORF norms (Technical Report No. 1702). Eugene, OR, Behavioral Research and Teaching, University of Oregon.

  • Haydicky, J., Wiener, J., Badali, P., Milligan, K., & Ducharme, J. M. (2012). Evaluation of a mindfulness-based intervention for adolescents with learning disabilities and co-occurring ADHD and anxiety. Mindfulness, 3, 151–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horner, R. H., Carr, E. G., Halle, J., McGee, G., Odom, S., & Wolery, M. (2005). The use of single-subject research to identify evidence-based practice in special education. Exceptional Children, 71, 165–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howe, K. B., & Shinn, M. M. (2002). Standard reading assessment passages (RAPs) for use in general outcome measurement: a manual describing development and technical features.

  • Howells, A., Ivtzan, I., & Eiroa-Orosa, F. J. (2016). Putting the ‘app’ in happiness: a randomized controlled trial of a smartphone-based mindfulness intervention to enhance wellbeing. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(1), 163–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IDEA. (2004). Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004. Pub. L. no. 108-446. 108th Congress, 2nd Session.

  • Jenkins, J., & O’Connor, R. (2002). Early identification and intervention for young children with reading/learning disabilities. In R. Bradley, L. Danielson, & D. P. Hallahan (Eds.), Identification of learning disabilities: Research to practice (pp. 99–149). Erlbaum.

  • Johnson, B. (2017). Learning disabilities in children: epidemiology, risk factors and importance of early intervention. BMH Medical Journal, 4(1), 31–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kadison, R., & DiGeronimo, T. F. (2004). College of the overwhelmed: the campus mental health crisis and what to do about it. Jossey-Bass.

  • Kaplan, D. M., Smith, T., & Coons, J. (1995). A validity study of the subjective unit of discomfort (SUD) score. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 27(4), 195–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (2011). Single-case research designs: methods for clinical and applied settings (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.

  • Kearney, C. A., & Spear, M. (2012). School refusal behavior. School-based cognitive-behavioral interventions. In R. B. Mennutti, R. Christner, & A. Freeman (Eds.), Cognitive-behavioral interventions in educational settings: a handbook for practice (pp. 161–183). Taylor & Francis.

  • Kendall, P. C., Safford, S., Flannery-Schroeder, E., & Webb, A. (2004). Child anxiety treatment: Outcomes in adolescence and impact on substance use and depression at 7.4-year follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(2), 276–287.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klassen, R. M. (2010). Confidence to manage learning: The self-efficacy for self-regulated learning of early adolescents with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33(1), 19–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klassen, R. M., & Lynch, S. L. (2007). Self-efficacy from the perspective of adolescents with LD and their specialist teachers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40(6), 494–507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klassen, R. M., & Usher, E. L. (2010). Self-efficacy in educational settings: recent research and emerging directions. In T. C. Urdan & S. A. Karabenick (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement: Vol. 16A. The decade ahead: theoretical perspectives on motivation and achievement (pp. 1–33). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

  • Klingbeil, D., Renshaw, T., Willenbrink, J., Copek, R., Chan, K., Haddock, A., Yassine, J., & Clifton, J. (2017). Mindfulness-based interventions with youth: a comprehensive meta-analysis of group-design studies. Journal of School Psychology, 63, 77–103.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kratochwill, T. R., Hitchcock, J. H., Horner, R. H., Levin, J. R., Odom, S. L., Rindskopf, D. M., & Shadish, W. R. (2013). Single-case intervention research design standards. Remedial and Special Education, 34(1), 26–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, M. R., Schwanenflugel, P. J., Meisinger, E. B., & Levy, B. A., & Rasinski, T. V. (Eds.). (2010). Aligning theory and assessment of reading fluency: automaticity, prosody, and definitions of fluency. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(2), 230-251.

  • Langer, E. J., & Moldoveanu, M. (2000). The construct of mindfulness. Journal of Social Issues, 56(1), 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, D., & Nes, S. (2001). Using paired reading to help ESL students become fluent and accurate readers. Reading Improvement, 38(2), 50–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Y., & Lu, Z. (2012). Chinese high school students’ academic stress and depressive symptoms: gender and school climate as moderators. Stress and Health, 28, 340–346.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, G., Shaywitz, S., & Shaywitz, B. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53(1), 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mahoney-Davies, G., Dixon, C., Tynan, H., & Mann, S. (2017). An evaluation of the effectiveness of a ‘Five Ways to Well-being’ group run with people with learning disabilities. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(1), 56–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mani, M., Kavanagh, D. J., Hides, L., & Stoyanov, S. R. (2015). Review and evaluation of mindfulness-based iPhone apps. JMIR mHealth and uHealth, 3(3), e82.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McKinstery, J., & Topping, K. J. (2003). Cross-age peer tutoring of thinking skills in the high school. Educational Psychology in Practice, 19, 199–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meece, J. L., Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (1990). Predictors of math anxiety and its consequences for young adolescents’ course enrollment intentions and performances in mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 60–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meisinger, E. B., Bloom, J. S., & Hynd, G. W. (2010). Reading fluency: implications for the assessment of children with reading disabilities. Annals of Dyslexia, 60, 1–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mercer, C. D., Campbell, K. U., Miller, M. D., Mercer, K. D., & Lane, H. B. (2000). Effects of a reading fluency intervention for middle schoolers with specific learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15, 179–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MetaMetrics Inc. (2021). Lexile find a book. The Lexile Framework for Reading. https://hub.lexile.com/find-a-book/search.

  • Morgan, P. L., & Fuchs, D. (2007). Is there a bidirectional relationship between children's reading skills and reading motivation? Exceptional Children, 73(2), 165–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murad, C. R., & Topping, K. J. (2000). Parents as reading tutors for first graders in Brazil. School Psychology International, 21(2), 152–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Education Statistics (2019). Children 3 to 21 years old served under Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Part B, by type of disability: Selected years, 1976-77 through 2018-19. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences.

  • Nelson, J. M., & Harwood, H. (2011). Learning disabilities and anxiety: a meta-analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 44(1), 3–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osborne, C., Alfano, J., & Winn, T. (2010). Paired reading as a literacy intervention for foster children. Adoption and Fostering, 34(4), 17–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panicker, A., & Chelliah, A. (2016). Resilience and stress in children and adolescents with specific learning disability. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 25, 17–23.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Qualtrics. (2018). Provo, UT: Qualtrics.

  • Ramsburg, J. T., & Youmans, R. J. (2014). Meditation in the higher-education classroom: meditation training improves student knowledge retention during lectures. Mindfulness, 5, 431–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rashotte, C. A., & Torgesen, J. K. (1985). Repeated reading and reading fluency in learning disabled children. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 180–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reading Rockets. (2019). Paired (or Partner) Reading. https://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/paired_reading.

  • Renshaw, T. L. (2019). Mindfulness-based intervention in schools. In C. Maykel & M. A. Bray (Eds.), Promoting mind–body health in schools: interventions for mental health professionals. (pp. 145–160). American Psychological Association.

  • Renshaw, T. L., & Cook, C. R. (2017). Mindfulness in the schools—historical roots, current status, and future directions. Psychology in the Schools, 54, 5–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roane, H. S., Ringdahl, J. E., Kelly, M. E., & Glover, A. C. (2011). Single-case experimental designs. In W. W. Fischer, C. C. Piazza, & H. S. Roane (Eds.), Handbook of applied behavior analysis (pp. 132-147) Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, S. G., & Begeny, J. C. (2015). An examination of treatment intensity with an oral reading fluency intervention: do intervention duration and student-teacher instructional ratios impact intervention effectiveness? Journal of Behavioral Education, 24, 11–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubenstein, L. D., Callan, G. L., Ridgley, L. M. & Henderson, A. (2019). Students’ strategic planning and strategy use during creative problem solving: the importance of perspective-taking. Online first, Thinking Skills and Creativity.

  • Samuels, S. J. (1979). The method of repeated readings. The Reading Teacher, 32, 403–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D., & Greene, J. (2017). Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315697048.

  • Sedlmeier, P., Eberth, J., Schwarz, M., Zimmermann, D., Haarig, F., Jaeger, S., & Kunze, S. (2012). The psychological effects of meditation: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138, 1139–1171.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semple, R. J., & Burke, C. (2019). State of the research: physical and mental health benefits of mindfulness-based interventions for children and adolescents. OBM Integrative and Complementary Medicine, 4(1).

  • Semple, R. J., Droutman, V., & Reid, B. A. (2017). Mindfulness goes to school: things learned (so far) from research and real-world experiences. Psychology in the Schools, 54, 29–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., Saavedra, L. M., & Piña, A. A. (2001). Test-retest reliability of anxiety symptoms and diagnoses with anxiety disorders interview schedule for DSM-IV: child and parent versions. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(8), 937–944.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simpkins, S. D., Davis-Kean, P. E., & Eccles, J. S. (2006). Math and science motivation: a longitudinal examination of the links between choices and beliefs. Developmental Psychology, 42(1), 70–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sinha, A. (2014). Stress vs academic performance. SCMS Journal of Indian Management, 11(4), 46–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, M., Turner, J., Sanford-Moore, E., & Koons, H. H. (2016). The Lexile Framework for Reading: an introduction to what it is and how to use it. In Q. Zhang (Ed.), Pacific Rim Objective Measurement Symposium (PROMS) 2015 Conference Proceedings. Springer.

  • Spinath, B., Spinath, F. M., Harlaar, N., & Plomin, R. P. (2006). Predicting school achievement from intelligence, self-perceived ability and intrinsic value. Intelligence, 34, 363–374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Struthers, C. W., Perry, R. P., & Menec, V. H. (2000). An examination of the relationship among academic stress, coping, motivation and performance in college. Research in Higher Education, 41, 581–592.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland, K. S., & Snyder, A. (2007). Effects of reciprocal peer tutoring and self-graphing on reading fluency and classroom behavior of middle school students with emotional or behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 15(2), 103–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanner, B. (2012). Validity of Global Physical and Emotional SUDS. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 37(1), 31–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thyer, B. A., Papsdorf, J. D., Davis, R., & Vallecorsa, S. (1984). Autonomic correlates of the subjective anxiety scale. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 15(1), 3–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Topping, K. (1995). Paired reading, spelling and writing: the handbook for teachers and parents. Continuum International Publishing Group.

  • Topping, K. (2012). Paired reading: Impact of a tutoring method on reading accuracy, comprehension, and fluency. Fluency instruction: Research-based best practices., 2nd ed., 185-201.

  • Topping, K. J., & Lindsay, G. A. (1992). Paired reading: a review of the literature. Research Papers in Education, 7(3), 199–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Topping, K. J., Miller, D., Thurston, A., McGavock, K., & Conlin, N. (2011). Peer tutoring in reading in Scotland: thinking big. Literacy, 45(1), 3–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Vugt, M. K., & Jha, A. P. (2011). Investigating the impact of mindfulness meditation training on working memory: a mathematical modeling approach. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 11, 344–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veerkamp, M. B., Kamps, D. M., & Cooper, L. (2007). The effects of classwide peer tutoring on the reading achievement of urban middle school students. Education and Treatment of Children, 30(2), 21–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vollestad, J., Nielsen, M. B., & Nielsen, G. H. (2012). Mindfulness-and acceptance-based interventions for anxiety disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51(3), 239–260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Stanford University Press.

  • Zenner, C., Herrnleben-Kurz, S., & Walach, H. (2014). Mindfulness-based interventions in schools—a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 603.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (2008) Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45(1):166–183.

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge Donna Gilbertson, PhD, for her contribution to conceptualizing this project.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chandler M. Benney.

Ethics declarations

Ethics Approval

This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Ethics Committee of Utah State University on March 23, 2018 (Protocol # 8717).

Consent to Participate

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Benney, C.M., Cavender, S.C., McClain, M.B. et al. Adding Mindfulness to an Evidence-Based Reading Intervention for a Student with SLD: a Pilot Study. Contemp School Psychol 26, 410–421 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-021-00361-w

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-021-00361-w

Keywords

Navigation