Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Concept of Atypical Brain Development in Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)—a New Look

  • Disorders of Motor (PH Wilson, Section Editor)
  • Published:
Current Developmental Disorders Reports Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The concept of atypical brain development was introduced by Gilger and Kaplan in 2001 to describe developmental variation in brain functions and to account for the high degree of comorbidity among neurodevelopmental disorders. Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder affecting around 5–6 % of school-aged children. It is phenotypically heterogeneous, with up to 70 % of children meeting criteria for at least one other neurodevelopmental disorder. Recent genetic evidence has found that the same genes are implicated in various neurodevelopmental disorders, including DCD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and autism spectrum disorder, and that these genes play a significant role in brain development. Imaging research has revealed that children with DCD display alterations in brain structure and function and that some of these alterations overlap with those that have been found children with ADHD, whereas others are unique to children who display DCD. Emerging genetic and imaging evidence supports the contention that DCD, which is associated with impairments in motor functioning, behavior, and other neuropsychological functions (e.g., visual perception, executive functioning), is due to atypical brain development. Future research is needed to help clarify the alterations in brain structure and function associated with this disorder and to examine etiological factors (e.g., genetics, teratogens, nutrition, very low birth weight) that place children at risk for DCD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance

  1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 4th edition TR. 2013.

  2. Gillberg C. The ESSENCE in child psychiatry: Early Symptomatic Syndromes Eliciting Neurodevelopmental Clinical Examinations. Res Dev Disabil. 2010;31(6):1543–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Simonoff E, Pickles A, Charman T, Chandler S, Loucas T, Baird G. Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2008;47(8):921–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Kaplan BJ, Wilson BN, Dewey D, Crawford SG. DCD may not be a discrete disorder. Hum Mov Sci. 1998;17(4–5):471–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Taurines R, Schmitt J, Renner T, Conner AC, Warnke A, Romanos M. Developmental comorbidity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. ADHD Atten Deficit Hyperact Disord. 2010;2(4):267–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Taurines R, Schwenck C, Westerwald E, Sachse M, Siniatchkin M, Freitag C. ADHD and autism: differential diagnosis or overlapping traits? A selective review. ADHD Atten Deficit Hyperact Disord. 2012;4(3):115–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Willcutt EG, Pennington BF, Duncan L, et al. Understanding the complex etiologies of developmental disorders: behavioral and molecular genetic approaches. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2010;31(7):533–44.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Blank R, Smiths-Engelsman B, Polatajko H, Wilson P. European Academy for Childhood Disability (EACD): recommendations on the definition, diagnosis and intervention of developmental coordination disorder (long version). Dev Med Child Neurol. 2012;54:54–93. This paper provides recommendations on the definition of developmental coordination disorder, diagnostic criteria, and appropriate interventions based on current research evidence.

  9. Dewey D, Cantell M, Crawford SG. Motor and gestural performance in children with autism spectrum disorders, developmental coordination disorder, and/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2007;13(2):246–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Green D, Charman T, Pickles A, et al. Impairment in movement skills of children with autistic spectrum disorders. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2009;51(4):311–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Hill EL, Bishop DVM, Nimmo-Smith I. A dyspraxic deficit in specific language impairment and developmental coordination disorder? Evidence from hand and arm movements. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1998;17(6):388–95.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Kirby A, Sugden D. Children with developmental coordination disorders. J R Soc Med. 2007;100(4):182–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Clements SG, Peters JE. Minimal brain dysfunction in the school-aged child. Arch Gen Psychiatr. 1962;6:185–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Paine RS. Minimal chronic brain syndromes in children. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1962;4:21–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Capute AJ, Palmer FB. A pediatrics overview of the spectrum of developmental disability. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1980;1:66–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Capute AJ, Accardo PJ. A neurodevelopmental perspective on the continuum of developmental disabilities. In: Capute AJ, Accardo PJ, editors. Developmental disabilities in infancy and childhood. Baltimore: Paul H Brooks Publishing Co; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Gilger JW, Kaplan BJ. Atypical brain development: a conceptual framework for understanding developmental learning disabilities. Dev Neuropsychol. 2001;20(2):465–81. This is the original article that introduced the concept of atypical brain development.

  18. Moreno-De-Luca A, Myers SM, Challman TD, Moreno-De-Luca D, Evans DW, Ledbetter DH. Developmental brain dysfunction: revival and expansion of old concepts based on new genetic evidence. Lancet Neurol. 2013;12(4):406–14. This paper discusses the concept of developmental brain dysfunction within the context of new genetic evidence. It presents the case that the high rates of comorbidity among neurodevelopmental disorders are due to genetic abnormalities, and that specific genetic causes, including certain copy number variants and single-gene mutations, are shared among disorders that are thought to be clinically distinct.

  19. Statistics Canada. Table 2 Population estimates by sex and age group as of July 1, 2013, Canada [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2016 Jan 25]. Available from: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quoilable from: tidien/131125/t131125a002-eng.htm. 2013 .

  20. Visser J. Developmental coordination disorder: a review of research on subtypes and comorbidities. Hum Mov Sci. 2003;22(4–5):479–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Summers J, Larkin D, Dewey D. Activities of daily living in children with developmental coordination disorder: dressing, personal hygiene, and eating skills. Hum Mov Sci. 2008;27(2):215–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Summers J, Larkin D, Dewey D. What impact does developmental coordination disorder have on daily routines? Int J Disability Dev Educ. 2008;55(2):131–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Missiuna C, Moll S, King G, King S, Law M. “Missed and misunderstood”: children with coordination difficulties in the school system. Int J Spec Educ. 2006;21:53–67.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Wilson PH, Ruddock S, Smits-Engelsman B, Polatajko H, Blank R. Understanding performance deficits in developmental coordination disorder: a meta-analysis of recent research. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2013;55(1):217–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Fong SS, Tsang WW, Gy N. Altered postural control strategies and sensory organization in children with developmental coordination disorder. Hum Mov Sc. 2012;31(5):1317–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Geuze RH. Postural control in children with developmental coordination disorder. Neural Plast. 2005;12(2–3):183–96.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Dewey D, Kaplan BJ, Crawford SG, Wilson BN. Developmental coordination disorder: associated problems in attention, learning, and psychosocial adjustment. Hum Mov Sci. 2002;21(5–6):905–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Pieters S, de Block K, Scheiris J, Eyssen M, Desoete A, Deboutte D, et al. How common are motor problems in children with a developmental disorder: rule or exception? Child Care Health Dev. 2012;38(Dcd):139–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Pitcher TM, Piek JP, Hay DA. Fine and gross motor ability in males with ADHD. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2007;45(8):525–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Brown-Lum M, Zwicker J. Brian imaging increases our understanding of developmental coordination disorder: a review of literature and future directions. Curr Dev Disord Reports. 2015;2:131–40. This paper provides a recent review of the brain imaging literature on developmental coordination disorder.

  31. Langevin LM, Macmaster FP, Dewey D. Distinct patterns of cortical thinning in concurrent motor and attention disorders. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2015;57(3):257–64. This is the first structural imaging paper to examine cortical thickness in children with DCD only and DCD and co-occurring ADHD. It demonstrated that children with DCD only and DCD + ADHD displayed different patterns of cortical thinning. Children with DCD only displayed thinning in the temporal pole, whereas children with comorbid motor and attention problems displayed global thinning in the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes.

  32. Langevin LM, Macmaster FP, Crawford S, Lebel C, Dewey D. Common white matter’ microstructure alterations in pediatric motor and attention disorders. J Pediatr. 2014;164(5). This is the first diffusion tensor imaging study to demonstrate that alterations in the corpus callosum are associated with difficulties in motor and attention functioning. Fractional anisotropy (FA) reductions were noted in the frontal regions of the corpus callosum for children with ADHD, whereas children with DCD displayed reductions in regions of the corpus callosum underlying parietal brain regions. Children with comorbid DCD and ADHD displayed FA reductions in both frontal and posterior regions of the corpus callosum.

  33. McLeod KR, Langevin LM, Goodyear BG, Dewey D. Functional connectivity of neural motor networks is disrupted in children with developmental coordination disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. NeuroImage Clin. 2014;4:566–75. This is the first paper to examine functional connectivity in the motor network in children with DCD, ADHD and co-occurring DCD + ADHD using resting state fMRI.

  34. Zwicker JG, Missiuna C, Harris SR, Boyd LA. Brain activation in children with developmental coordination disorder is different from their peers. Pediatrics. 2010;126(3):e678–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Lahey BB, Van Hulle CA, Singh AL, Waldman ID, Rathouz PJ. Higher-order genetic and environmental structure of prevalent forms of child and adolescent psychopathology. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011;68(2):181–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Lichtenstein P, Carlström E, Råstam M, Gillberg C, Anckarsäter H. The genetics of autism spectrum disorders and related neuropsychiatric disorders in childhood. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167(11):1357–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Martin NC, Piek JP, Hay D. DCD and ADHD: a genetic study of their shared aetiology. Hum Mov Sci. 2006;25:110–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Hawke JL, Wadsworth SJ, DeFries JC. Genetic influences on reading difficulties in boys and girls: the Colorado twin study. Dyslexia. 2006;12(1):21–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Posthuma D, Polderman TJC. What have we learned from recent twin studies about the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders? Curr Opin Neurol. 2013;26:111–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Stergiakouli E, Hamshere M, Holmans P, et al. Investigating the contribution of common genetic variants to the risk and pathogenesis of ADHD. Am J Psychiatry. 2011;169(2):186–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Zhang Y, Haraksingh R, Grubert F, et al. Child development and structural variation in the human genome. Child Dev. 2013;84(1):34–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Lionel AC, Crosbie J, Barbosa N, et al. Rare copy number variation discovery and cross-disorder comparisons identify risk genes for ADHD. Sci Transl Med. 2011;3(95):95ra75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Ahn K, Gotay N, Andersen TM, Anvari AA, Gochman P, Lee Y, et al. High rate of disease-related copy number variations in childhood onset schizophrenia. Mol Psychiatry. 2014;19(5):568–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Glessner JT, Connolly JJM, Hakonarson H. Rare genomic deletions and duplications and their role in neurodevelopmental disorders. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. 2012;12:345–60. This paper examines the role of CNV research in determining the etiology of developmental disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism, and discusses relevant methodological considerations.

  45. Oskoui M, Gazzellone MJ, Thiruvahindrapuram B, et al. Clinically relevant copy number variations detected in cerebral palsy. Nat Commun. 2015;6:7949. This is the first paper to show that genes play an important role in cerebral palsy.

  46. Moessner R, Marshall CR, Sutcliffe JS, et al. Contribution of SHANK3 mutations to autism spectrum disorder. Am J Hum Genet. 2007;81(6):1289–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Pinto D, Anney R, Gallinger S, Le Couteur AS, Kolevzon A, González PJ. Convergence of genes and cellular pathways dysregulated in autism spectrum disorders. Am J Hum Genet. 2014;94(5):677–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Thapar A, Martin J, Mick J, et al. Psychiatric gene discoveries shape evidence on ADHD’s biology. Mol Psychiatry. 2015;1–6.

  49. Bernier F, Mosca, Stephen J Langevin LM, Innes AM, Lionel, Anath C Marshall, Christian C Scherer, Stephen W Parboosingh, Jillian S Dewey D. Copy-number variation in Canadian children with developmental coordination disorder implicates neurodevelopmental genes. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society : JINS. 2015. This is the first study to investigate copy number variation in children with DCD.

  50. Mascaro A, Cesare P, Sacconi L, et al. In vivo single branch axotomy induces GAP-43–dependent sprouting and synaptic remodeling in cerebellar cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013;110:10824–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Shen Y, Meiri K. GAP-43 dependency defines distinct effects of netrin-1 on cortical and spinal neurite outgrowth and directional guidance. Int J Dev Neurosci. 2013;31:11–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Zaccaria KJ, Lagace DC, Eisch AJ, McCasland JS. Resistance to change and vulnerability to stress: autistic-like features of GAP43-deficient mice. Genes Brain Behav. 2010;9:985–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Shuvarikov A, Campbell I, Dittwald P, Neill N, Bialer M, Moore C, et al. Recurrent HERV-H-Mediated 3q13.2-q13.31 Deletions cause a syndrome of hypotonia and motor, language, and cognitive delays. Hum Mutat. 2013;1–31.

  54. Shen Y-C, Tsai H-M, Cheng M-C, Hsu S-H, Chen S-F, Chen C-H. Genetic and functional analysis of the gene encoding GAP-43 in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 2012;134:239–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Van Waelvelde H, De Weerdt W, De Cock P, Janssens L, Feys H, Smits Engelsman BCM. Parameterization of movement execution in children with developmental coordination disorder. Brain Cogn. 2006;60:20–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Bo J, Lee C-M. Motor skill learning in children with developmental coordination disorder. Res Dev Disabil. 2013;34(6):2047–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Sigmundsson H. Perceptual deficits in clumsy children: inter- and intra-modal matching approach—a window into clumsy behavior. Neural Plast. 2003;10(1):27–38.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Wilson PH, McKenzie BE. Information processing deficits associated with developmental coordination disorder: a meta-analysis of research findings. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1998;39(6):829–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. De Oliveira RF, Wann JP. Integration of dynamic information for visuomotor control in young adults with developmental coordination disorder. Exp Brain Res. 2010;205:387–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Penfield W, Boldrey E. Somatic motor and sensory representation in the cerebral cortex of man as studied by electrical stimulation. Brain. 1937;60:389–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Miller EK, Cohen JD. An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2001;24(1):167–202.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Piek JP, Dyck MJ, Francis M, Conwell A. Working memory, processing speed, and set-shifting in children with developmental coordination disorder and attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2007;49(9):678–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Rosenblum S, Regev N. Timing abilities among children with developmental coordination disorders (DCD) in comparison to children with typical development. Res Dev Disabil. 2013;34(1):218–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Cantin N, Polatajko HJ, Thach WT, Jaglal S. Developmental coordination disorder: exploration of a cerebellar hypothesis. Hum Mov Sci. 2007;26(3):491–509.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Kagerer F, Bo J, Contreras-Vidal JL, Clark JE. Visuomotor adaptation in children with developmental coordination disorder. Mot Control. 2004;8:450–60.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Kagerer F, Contreras-Vidal JL, Bo J, Clark JE. Abrupt, but not gradual visuomotor distortion facilitates adaptation in children with developmental coordination disorder. Hum Mov Sci. 2006;25:622–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Groenewegen HJ. The basal ganglia and motor control. Neural Plast. 2003;10(1–2):107–20.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Lundy-Ekman L, Ivry R. Timing and force control deficits in clumsy children. J Cogn Neurosc. 1991;3(4):367–76.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Smits-Engelsman BCM, Westenberg Y, Duysens J. Children with developmental coordination disorder are equally able to generate force but show more variability than typically developing children. Hum Mov Sci. 2008;27(2):296–309.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Dewey D, Kaplan BJ. Subtyping of developmental motor deficits. Dev Neuropsychol. 1994;10(3):265–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Maruff P, Wilson P, Trebilcock M, Currie J. Abnormalities of imagined motor sequences in children with developmental coordination disorder. Neuropsychologia. 1999;37(11):1317–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Mountcastle VB. Modality and topographic properties of single neurons of cat’s somatic sensory cortex. J Neurophysiol. 1957;20(4):408–34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Colby CL, Goldberg ME. Space and attention in parietal cortex. Annu Rev Neurosci. 1999;22:319–49.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Husain M, Nachev P. Space and the parietal cortex. Trends Cogn Sci. 2007;11(1):30–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  75. Andersen RA, Cui H. Intention, action planning, and decision making in parietal-frontal circuits. Neuron. 2009;63(5):568–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Wilson PH, Maruff P, Ives S, Currie J. Abnormalities of motor and praxis imagery in children with DCD. Hum Mov Sci. 2001;20(1–2):135–59.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Williams J, Thomas PR, Maruff P, Wilson PH. The link between motor impairment level and motor imagery ability in children with developmental coordination disorder. Hum Mov Sci. 2008;27(78):270–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Peters LHJ, Maathuis CGB, Hadders-Algra M. Neural correlates of developmental coordination disorder. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2013;55(SUPPL.4):59–64. 80.

  79. Zwicker JG, Missiuna C, Harris SR, Boyd LA. Developmental coordination disorder: a pilot diffusion tensor imaging study. Pediatr Neurol. 2012;46(3):162–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Tamm L, Barnea-Goraly N, Reiss AL. Diffusion tensor imaging reveals white matter abnormalities in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2012;202(2):150–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Zwicker JG, Missiuna C, Harris SR, Boyd LA. Brain activation associated with motor skill practice in children with developmental coordination disorder: an fMRI study. Int J Dev Neurosci. 2011;29(2):145–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Querne L, Berquin P, Vernier-Hauvette MP, et al. Dysfunction of the attentional brain network in children with developmental coordination disorder: a fMRI study. Brain Res. 2008;1244:89–102.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Debrabant J, Gheysen F, Caeyenberghs K, Van Waelvelde H, Vingerhoets G. Neural underpinnings of impaired predictive motor timing in children with developmental coordination disorder. Res Dev Disabil. 2013;34(5):1478–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Kashiwagi M, Iwaki S, Narumi Y, Tamai H, Suzuki S. Parietal dysfunction in developmental coordination disorder: a functional MRI study. Neuroreport. 2009;20(2):1319–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Licari MK, Billington J, Reid SL, et al. Cortical functioning in children with developmental coordination disorder: a cortical overflow study. Exp Brain Res. 2015;233(6):1703–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Katschmarsky S, Cairney S, Maruff P, Wilson PH, Currie J. The ability to execute saccades on the basis of efference copy: impairments in double-step saccade performance in children with developmental co-ordination disorder. Exp Brain Res. 2001;134(1):73–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Paediatrics, Owerko Centre, Alberta Children’s Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, 355 Child Development Centre, 2500 University Dr. NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 1N4, Canada

    Deborah Dewey

  2. Department of Community Health Sciences, University of Calgary, 3rd Floor TRW Building, 3280 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, T2N 4Z6, AB, Canada

    Deborah Dewey

  3. Department of Medical Genetics, Alberta Children’s Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, 2888 Shaganappi Tr. NW, Calgary, T3B 6A8, AB, Canada

    Francois P. Bernier

Authors
  1. Deborah Dewey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Francois P. Bernier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Deborah Dewey.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

Deborah Dewey reports grants from Canadian Institutes of Health Research.

Francois P. Bernier declares that he has no conflict of interest.

Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

This article is part of the Topical Collection on Disorders of Motor

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Dewey, D., Bernier, F.P. The Concept of Atypical Brain Development in Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)—a New Look. Curr Dev Disord Rep 3, 161–169 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-016-0086-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-016-0086-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation