Abstract
The negative impact of discrimination on adolescent mental health is well established, but less is known about the effects of identity-based bullying (i.e., verbal or physical assaults targeting identity(ies)). The current study examined the impact of identity-based victimization (i.e., everyday discrimination and identity-based bullying) on mental health, and the protective role of teacher–student relationships, in a diverse sample of adolescents. Data from a diverse sample of 9th–12th graders (N = 986, 51% youth of Color, 52% cisgender girls, 22% sexual minorities, 41% free/reduced-price lunch status) in a semi-urban high school were analyzed using structural equation modeling analyses, including moderation and multi-group comparisons. Findings indicated that identity-based victimization is pervasive and negatively associated with mental health. Adolescents with stigmatized identities across sexual orientation, race, and gender faced a higher risk of experiencing identity-based victimization, and mental health challenges. Teacher–student relationships that were positive and autonomy-enhancing had a moderating effect on the association between identity-based victimization and mental health for many adolescents, such that they were not protective for those experiencing more severe victimization (i.e., high discrimination or identity-based bullying). Multigroup analyses indicated significant model fit differences across race and gender. Results suggest that extant school-based supports are not enough to combat the pervasive effects of identity-based victimization. Findings support the examination and implementation of changes in clinical and school-based practice and policy to better support stigmatized and victimized adolescents.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
People of Color (e.g., youth of Color, students of Color, adolescents of Color) refer to individuals of Native American, African, Latinx, and/or Asian/Pacific Islander descent. Color is intentionally capitalized to promote empowerment of this group, symbolizing a grammatical method of moving toward racial and social justice (Huber, 2009; Kohli, 2008).
References
Aboud, F. E., & Fenwick, V. (1999). Exploring and evaluating school-based interventions to reduce prejudice. Journal of Social Issues,55, 767–785. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00146.
Alang, S., McAlpine, D., McCreedy, E., & Hardeman, R. (2017). Police brutality and black health: Setting the agenda for public health scholars. American Journal of Public Health,107(5), 662–665. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2017.303691.
Allison, P. D. (2012). Handling missing data by maximum likelihood. SAS global forum 2012 statistics and data analysis (pp. 1–21). http://doi.org/10.1042/CS20080236.
Almeida, J., Johnson, R. M., Corliss, H. L., Molnar, B. E., & Azrael, D. (2009). Emotional distress among LGBT youth: The influence of perceived discrimination based on sexual orientation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,38(7), 1001–1014.
Al-Yagon, M., & Mikulincer, M. (2004). Socioemotional and academic adjustment among children with learning disorders: The mediational role of attachment-based factors. The Journal of Special Education,38(2), 111–123. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224669040380020501.
Austin, A., & Craig, S. (2015). Transgender affirming cognitive behavioral therapy: Clinical considerations and applications. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice,46(1), 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038642.
Ayers, S. L., Wagaman, M. A., Geiger, J. M., Bermudez-Parsai, M., & Hedberg, E. C. (2012). Examining school-based bullying interventions using multilevel discrete time hazard modeling. Prevention Science,13(5), 539–550. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-012-0280-7.
Bates, L. A., & Glick, J. E. (2013). Does it matter if teachers and schools match the student? Racial and ethnic disparities in problem behaviors. Social Science Research, 42(5), 1180–1190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2013.04.005.
Beelmann, A., & Heinemann, K. S. (2014). Preventing prejudice and improving intergroup attitudes: A meta-analysis of child and adolescent training programs. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,35(1), 10–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2013.11.002.
Bellmore, A., Nishina, A., You, J. I., & Ma, T. L. (2012). School context protective factors against peer ethnic discrimination across the high school years. American Journal of Community Psychology,49(1–2), 98–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-011-9443-0.
Belmont, M. J., Skinner, E. A., Wellborn, J. G., & Connell, J. P. (1988). Teacher as social context: A measure of student perceptions of teacher provisions of involvement, structure, and autonomy support. Rochester, NY.
Brinkman, B. G. (2015). Detection and prevention of identity-based bullying. New York City, NY: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Chirkov, V. I., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Parent and teacher autonomy-support in Russian and U.S. adolescents: Common effects on well-being and academic motivation. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,32(5), 618–635. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022101032005006.
Chorpita, B. F., Yim, L., Moffitt, C., Umemoto, L. A., & Francis, S. E. (2000). Assessment of symptoms of DSM-IV anxiety and depression in children: A revised child anxiety and depression scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy,38(8), 835–855.
Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist,54(10), 805–816. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.805.
Cogburn, C. D., Chavous, T. M., & Griffin, T. M. (2011). School-based racial and gender discrimination among African American adolescents: exploring gender variation in frequency and implications for adjustment. Race and Social Problems,3(1), 25–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-011-9040-8.
Cole, D., Ciesla, J., & Steiger, J. (2007). The insidious effects of failing to include design-driven correlated residuals in latent-variable covariance structure analysis. Psychological Methods,12(4), 381–398. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.12.4.381.
Cornelius-White, J. (2007). Learner-centered teacher–student relationships are effective: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research,77(1), 113–143. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298563.
Costa, B. M., Kaestle, C. E., Walker, A., Curtis, A., Day, A., Toumbourou, J. W., et al. (2015). Longitudinal predictors of domestic violence perpetration and victimization: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior,24, 261–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.06.001.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika,16(3), 38.
Darwich, L., Hymel, S., & Waterhouse, T. (2012). School avoidance and substance use among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and questioning youths: The impact of peer victimization and adult support. Journal of Educational Psychology,104(2), 381–392. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026684.
Dessel, A. (2010). Prejudice in schools: Promotion of an inclusive culture and climate. Education and Urban Society, 42(4), 407–429. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124510361852.
Di Stasio, M. R., Savage, R., & Burgos, G. (2016). Social comparison, competition and teacher–student relationships in junior high school classrooms predicts bullying and victimization. Journal of Adolescence,53, 207–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.10.002.
Earnshaw, V., Reisner, S., Menino, D., Poteat, V., Bogart, L., Barnes, D., et al. (2018). Stigma-based bullying interventions: A systematic review. Developmental Review,48, 178–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2018.02.001.
Earnshaw, V. A., Rosenthal, L., Carroll-Scott, A., Peters, S. M., McCaslin, C., & Ickovics, J. R. (2014). Teacher involvement as a protective factor from the association between race-based bullying and smoking initiation. Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal,17(2), 197–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-014-9250-1.
Espelage, D., Aragon, R., Birkett, M., & Koenig, W. (2008). Homophobic teasing, psychological outcomes, and sexual orientation among high school students: What influence do parents and schools have? School Psychology Review,37(2), 202.
Evans, M., & Boucher, A. R. (2015). Optimizing the power of choice: Supporting student autonomy to foster motivation and engagement in learning. Mind, Brain, and Education,9(2), 87–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12073.
Farrington, D., & Ttofi, M. (2009). Reducing school bullying: Evidence-based implications for policy. Crime and Justice,38(1), 281–345. https://doi.org/10.1086/599198.
Ferguson, C. J., Miguel, C. S., Kilburn, J. C., & Sanchez, P. (2007). The effectiveness of school-based anti-bullying programs: A meta-analytic review. Criminal Justice Review,32(4), 401–414. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016807311712.
Fisher, C. B., Wallace, S. A., & Fenton, R. E. (2000). Discrimination distress during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,29(6), 679–695. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026455906512.
Garcia-Reid, P., Hamme Peterson, C., & Reid, R. J. (2015). Parent and teacher support among Latino immigrant youth: Effects on school engagement and school trouble avoidance. Education and Urban Society,47(3), 328–343. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124513495278.
Garnett, B. R., Masyn, K. E., Austin, S. B., Miller, M., Williams, D. R., & Viswanath, K. (2014). The intersectionality of discrimination attributes and bullying among youth: An applied latent class analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,43(8), 1225–1239.
Gaskin, J. & Lim, J. (2018). Multigroup analysis, AMOS Plugin. Gaskination’s StatWiki.
Golaszewski, N. M., Pasch, K. E., Fernandez, A., Poulos, N. S., Batanova, M., & Loukas, A. (2018). Perceived weight discrimination and school connectedness among youth: Does teacher support play a protective role? Journal of School Health,88(10), 754–761. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12682.
Goodenow, C., Szalacha, L., & Westheimer, K. (2006). School support groups, other school factors, and the safety of sexual minority adolescents. Psychology in the Schools,43(5), 573–589.
Gower, A. L., Rider, G. N., Brown, C., McMorris, B. J., Coleman, E., Taliaferro, L. A., et al. (2018). Supporting transgender and gender diverse youth: Protection against emotional distress and substance use. American Journal of Preventive Medicine,55(6), 787–794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2018.06.030.
Greytak, E. A., Kosciw, J. G., & Boesen, M. J. (2013). Educating the educator: Creating supportive school personnel through professional development. Journal of School Violence,12(1), 80–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2012.731586.
Guerra, N., Williams, K., & Sadek, S. (2011). Understanding bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A mixed methods study. Child Development,82(1), 295–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01556.x.
Guiffrida, D. A. (2003). African american student organizations as agents of social integration. Journal of College Student Development,44(3), 304–319. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2003.0024.
Hamilton, J. L., Stange, J. P., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2015). Stress and the development of cognitive vulnerabilities to depression explain sex differences in depressive symptoms during adolescence. Clinical Psychological Science,3(5), 702–714. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614545479.
Hamre, B., & Pianta, R. (2001). Early teacher–child relationships and the trajectory of children’s school outcomes through eighth grade. Child Development,72(2), 625. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00301.
Heck, N. C., Lindquist, L. M., Stewart, B. T., Brennan, C., & Cochran, B. N. (2013). To join or not to join: Gay-straight student alliances and the high school experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youths. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services,25(1), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2012.751764.
Heubeck, B. G., & Neill, J. T. (2000). Confirmatory factor analysis and reliability of the Mental Health Inventory for Australian adolescents. Psychological Reports,87, 431–440. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2000.87.2.431.
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indices in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling,6, 1–55.
Huang, F., Lewis, C., Cohen, D., Prewett, S., & Herman, K. (2018). Bullying involvement, teacher–student relationships, and psychosocial outcomes. School Psychology Quarterly,33(2), 223–234. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000249.
Huber, L. P. (2009). Challenging racist nativist framing: Acknowledging the community cultural wealth of undocumented Chicana college students to reframe the immigration debate. Harvard Educational Review,79(4), 704–730. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.79.4.r7j1xn011965w186.
Huynh, V. W., & Fuligni, A. J. (2010). Discrimination hurts: The academic, psychological, and physical well-being of adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence,20(4), 916–941. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00670.x.
Jungert, T., Piroddi, B., & Thornberg, R. (2016). Early adolescents’ motivations to defend victims in school bullying and their perceptions of student–teacher relationships: A self-determination theory approach. Journal of Adolescence,53, 75–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.09.001.
Kann, L., McManus, T., Harris, W., Shanklin, S., Flint, K., et al. (2018). Youth risk behavior surveillance–United States, 2017. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summaries,67(8), 1–479.
Kim, G., Sellbom, M., & Ford, K.-L. (2014). Race/ethnicity and measurement equivalence of the everyday discrimination scale. Psychological Assessment,26(3), 892–900. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036431.
Kohli, R. (2008). Breaking the cycle of racism in the classroom: Critical race reflections from future teachers of color. Teacher Education Quarterly,35(4), 177–188.
Konishi, C., Hymel, S., Zumbo, B. D., & Li, Z. (2010). Do school bullying and student–teacher relationships matter for academic achievement? A multilevel analysis. Canadian Journal of School Psychology,25(1), 19–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573509357550.
Kosciw, J. G., Greytak, E. A., Bartkiewicz, M. J., Boesen, M. J., & Palmer, N. A. (2011). The 2011 National School Climate Survey: The Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Youth in Our Nation’s Schools. Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network (GLSEN). Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED535177.
Kosciw, J. G., Greytak, E. A., & Diaz, E. M. (2009). Who, what, where, when, and why: Demographic and ecological factors contributing to hostile school climate for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,38(7), 976–988. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9412-1.
Lee, D. L., & Ahn, S. (2013). The relation of racial identity, ethnic identity, and racial socialization to discrimination-distress: A meta-analysis of Black Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology,60(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031275.
LeVasseur, M. T., Kelvin, E. A., & Grosskopf, N. A. (2013). Intersecting identities and the association between bullying and suicide attempt among New York City youths: Results from the 2009 New York City youth risk behavior survey. American Journal of Public Health,103(6), 1082–1089. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300994.
Lewis, T. T., Yang, F. M., Jacobs, E. A., & Fitchett, G. (2012). Racial/ethnic differences in responses to the everyday discrimination scale: A differential item functioning analysis. American Journal of Epidemiology,175(5), 391–401. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwr287.
Marx, R. A., & Kettrey, H. H. (2016). Gay-straight alliances are associated with lower levels of school-based victimization of LGBTQ + youth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,45(7), 1269–1282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0501-7.
McCormick, M. P., & O’Connor, E. E. (2015). Teacher–child relationship quality and academic achievement in elementary school: Does gender matter? Journal of Educational Psychology,107(2), 502–516. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037457.
McHugh, R. M., Horner, C. G., Colditz, J. B., & Wallace, T. L. (2013). Bridges and barriers: Adolescent perceptions of student–teacher relationships. Urban Education,48(1), 9–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085912451585.
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin,129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674.
Mihalas, S. T., Witherspoon, R. G., Harper, M. E., & Sovran, B. A. (2012). The moderating effect of teacher support on depression and relational victimization in minority middle school students. International Journal of Whole Schooling,8(1), 40–62.
Nation, M., Vieno, A., Perkins, D. D., & Santinello, M. (2008). Bullying in school and adolescent sense of empowerment: An analysis of relationships with parents, friends, and teachers. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology,18(3), 211–232. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.921.
O’Shaughnessy, M., Russell, S., Heck, K., Calhoun, C., & Laub, C. (2004). Safe place to learn: Consequences of harassment based on actual or perceived sexual orientation and gender non-conformity and steps for making schools safer california safe schools coalition 4-H Center for youth development. Retrieved from www.casafeschools.org.
Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 531. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016059.
Patton, L. (2006). The voice of reason: A qualitative examination of Black student perceptions of Black culture centers. Journal of College Student Development,47(6), 628–646.
Phinney, J. S., & Tarver, S. (1988). Ethnic identity search and commitment in Black and White eighth graders. The Journal of Early Adolescence,8(3), 265–277. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431688083004.
Pianta, R. C., Hamre, B., Stuhlman, M., Pianta, R. C., Hamre, B., & Stuhlman, M. (2003). Relationships between teachers and children. In Handbook of psychology. Hoboken: Wiley. http://doi.org/10.1002/0471264385.wei0710.
Poteat, V. P., Mereish, E. H., DiGiovanni, C. D., & Koenig, B. W. (2011). The effects of general and homophobic victimization on adolescents’ psychosocial and educational concerns: The importance of intersecting identities and parent support. Journal of Counseling Psychology,58(4), 597–609. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025095.
Poteat, V. P., Slaatten, H., & Breivik, K. (2019). Factors associated with teachers discussing and intervening against homophobic language. Teaching and Teacher Education,77, 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.09.006.
Raufelder, D., Kittler, F., Braun, S. R., Latsch, A., Wilkinson, R. P., & Hoferichter, F. (2013). The interplay of perceived stress, self-determination and school engagement in adolescence. School Psychology International,35(4), 405–420. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034313498953.
Rey, R. B., Smith, A. L., Yoon, J., Somers, C., & Barnett, D. (2007). Relationships between teachers and urban African American children: The role of informant. School Psychology International,28(3), 346–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034307078545.
Roorda, D. L., Koomen, H. M. Y., Spilt, J. L., & Oort, F. J. (2011). The influence of affective teacher–student relationships on students’ school engagement and achievement: A meta-analytic approach. Review of Educational Research,81(4), 493–529. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654311421793.
Russell, S. T., Sinclair, K. O., Poteat, V. P., & Koenig, B. W. (2012). Adolescent health and harassment based on discriminatory bias. American Journal of Public Health,102(3), 493–495.
Saft, E. W., & Pianta, R. C. (2001). Teachers’ perceptions of their relationships with students: Effects of child age, gender, and ethnicity of teachers and children. School Psychology Quarterly, 16(2), 125–141.
Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Postmes, T., & Garcia, A. (2014). The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin,140(4), 921–948. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035754.
Schreiber, J. B., Nora, A., Stage, F. K., Barlow, E. A., & King, J. (2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research, 99(6), 323–338. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.99.6.323-338.
Seil, K. S., Desai, M. M., & Smith, M. V. (2014). Sexual orientation, adult connectedness, substance use, and mental health outcomes among adolescents: Findings from the 2009 New York City Youth Risk Behavior Survey. American Journal of Public Health,104(10), 1950–1956.
Shevlin, M., & Miles, J. N. V. (1998). Effects of sample size, model specification and factor loadings on the GFI in confirmatory factor analysis. Personality and Individual Differences,25(1), 85–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00055-5.
Snapp, S. D., McGuire, J. K., Sinclair, K. O., Gabrion, K., & Russell, S. T. (2015). LGBTQ-inclusive curricula: Why supportive curricula matter. Sex Education,15(6), 580–596. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2015.1042573.
Spence, S., White, M., Adamson, A. J., & Matthews, J. N. S. (2015). Does the use of passive or active consent affect consent or completion rates, or dietary data quality? Repeat cross-sectional survey among school children aged 11–12 years. British Medical Journal Open,5(1), e006457. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006457.
Stotzer, R. (2012). Comparison of hate crime rates across protected and unprotected groups: An update. The Williams Institute, (June), 1–5. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/43z1q49r.
Tang, Q., Fang, X., Hu, W., Chen, H., Wu, M., & Wang, F. (2013). The associations between parental and teacher autonomy support and high school students’ development. Psychological Development and Education,29, 604–615.
Theobald, D., & Farrington, D. P. (2012). Child and adolescent predictors of male intimate partner violence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,53(12), 1242–1249. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02577.x.
Toomey, R. B., Ryan, C., Diaz, R. M., Card, N. A., & Russell, S. T. (2010). Gender-nonconforming lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: School victimization and young adult psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology,46(6), 1580–1589. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020705.
Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2012). Risk and protective factors, longitudinal research, and bullying prevention. New Directions for Youth Development,2012(133), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.20009.
Ttofi, M. M., Farrington, D. P., & Lösel, F. (2012). School bullying as a predictor of violence later in life: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective longitudinal studies. Aggression and Violent Behavior,17, 405–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.05.002.
Tucker, C. M., Zayco, R. A., Herman, K. C., Reinke, W. M., Trujillo, M., Carraway, K., et al. (2002). Teacher and child variables as predictors of academic engagement among low-income African American children. Psychology in the Schools,39(4), 477–488. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10038.
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Updegraff, K. A. (2007). Latino adolescents’ mental health: Exploring the interrelations among discrimination, ethnic identity, cultural orientation, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Adolescence,30(4), 549–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.08.002.
U.S. Department of Justice. (2018). FBI—Hate Crime Summary. Retrieved from https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate-crime/2017/resource-pages/hate-crime-summary.
Voss, K. E., Stem, D. E., & Fotopoulos, S. (2000). A comment on the relationship between coefficient alpha and scale characteristics. Marketing Letters,11(2), 177–191.
Wang, C., Swearer, S. M., Lembeck, P., Collins, A., & Berry, B. (2015). Teachers matter: An examination of student-teacher relationships, attitudes toward bullying, and bullying behavior. Journal of Applied School Psychology,31(3), 219–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377903.2015.1056923.
Way, N., Reddy, R., & Rhodes, J. (2007). Students’ perceptions of school climate during the middle school years: Associations with trajectories of psychological and behavioral adjustment. American Journal of Community Psychology,40(3–4), 194–213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-007-9143-y.
Wei, H.-S., Williams, J. H., Chen, J.-K., & Chang, H.-Y. (2010). The effects of individual characteristics, teacher practice, and school organizational factors on students’ bullying: A multilevel analysis of public middle schools in Taiwan. Children and Youth Services Review,32(1), 137–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.08.004.
Williams, D. R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J. S., & Anderson, N. B. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health socio-economic status, stress and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology,2(3), 335–351.
Wolff, J. R., Himes, H. L., Soares, S. D., & Miller Kwon, E. (2016). Sexual minority students in non-affirming religious higher education: Mental health, outness, and identity. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity,3(2), 201–212. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000162.
Yiu, H. L. (2013). The influence of student–teacher racial match on student–teacher closeness: A focus on Asian and Asian American students. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 4(2), 126–135.
Yu, C., Li, X., Wang, S., & Zhang, W. (2016). Teacher autonomy support reduces adolescent anxiety and depression: An 18-month longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescence,49, 115–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.03.001.
Zimmerman, R. S., Khoury, E. L., Vega, W. A., Gil, A. G., & Warheit, G. J. (1995). Teacher and parent perceptions of behavior problems among a sample of African American, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic white students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23(2), 181–97.
Zullig, K. J., Collins, R., Ghani, N., Patton, J. M., Scott Huebner, E., & Ajamie, J. (2014). Psychometric support of the school climate measure in a large, diverse sample of adolescents: A replication and extension. Journal of School Health,84(2), 82–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12124.
Zullig, K. J., Koopman, T. M., Patton, J. M., & Ubbes, V. A. (2010). School climate: Historical review, instrument development, and school assessment. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment,28(2), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282909344205.
Funding
This investigation was supported in part by the Dean’s Venture Fund from the Harvard Graduate School of Education and the Boston College Collaborative Fellows Grant.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors have no potential conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Price, M., Hill, N.E., Liang, B. et al. Teacher Relationships and Adolescents Experiencing Identity-Based Victimization: What Matters for Whom Among Stigmatized Adolescents. School Mental Health 11, 790–806 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-019-09327-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-019-09327-z