Abstract
This research aimed to figure out the relationships between depression, loneliness and pathological Internet use by testing 677 middle school students (Mage = 12.12, SD = 0.79) and making a three-wave cross-lagged analysis. The total measuring time was two years, with a time interval of one year. The results showed the following: (1) There were significantly positive relationships between depression, loneliness and pathological Internet use at three time points; (2) Depression at T1 and T2 could significantly and positively predict pathological Internet use at T2 and T3, while loneliness could not. Pathological Internet use at T1 could significantly and positively predict the feelings of depression and loneliness at T2, while pathological Internet use at T2 could not significantly and positively predict the feelings of depression and loneliness at T3. Thus, results were inconclusive regarding whether PIU led to later psychiatric symptoms. This complex interactions varied with time and did not vary with gender. The findings show important significance for promotion of adolescents’ psychology development and the prevention of pathological Internet use.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability Statement
The datasets used and analysed during the current study are available in the [OSF] repository, [https://osf.io/cnhzx/].
References
Alheneidi, H., Alsumait, L., Alsumait, D., & Smith, A. P. (2021). Loneliness and problematic Internet use during COVID-19 lock-down. Behavioral Sciences, 11(5), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11010005
Anderson, C. A. (1999). Attributional style, depression, and loneliness: A cross-cultural comparison of American and Chinese students. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(4), 482–499. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167299025004007
Andreou, E., & Svoli, H. (2012). The association between Internet user characteristics and dimensions of Internet addiction among Greek adolescents. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 11(2), 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-012-9404-3
Angold, A., Erkanli, A., Silberg, J., Eaves, L., & Costello, E. J. (2002). Depression scale scores in 8–17-year-olds: Effects of age and gender. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(8), 1052–1063. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00232
Block, J. J. (2008). Issues for DSM-V: Internet addiction. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(3), 306–307. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07101556
Brage, D., Meredith, W., & Woodward, J. (1993). Correlates of loneliness among Midwestern adolescents. Adolescence, 28(111), 685–693. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4603(93)90075-K
Cao, F., & Su, L. (2007). Internet addiction among Chinese adolescents: prevalence and psychological features. Child: Care, Health and Development, 33(3), 275–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2006.00715.x
Cao, F., Su, L., Liu, T., & Gao, X. (2007). The relationship between impulsivity and Internet addiction in a sample of Chinese adolescents. European Psychiatry the Journal of the Association of European Psychiatrists, 22(7), 466–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2007.05.004
Casale, S., & Fioravanti, G. (2011). Psychosocial correlates of Internet use among Italian students. International Journal of Psychology, 46(4), 288–298. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2010.541256
Chang, E. C. (2018). Relationship between loneliness and symptoms of anxiety and depression in African American men and women: Evidence for gender as a moderator. Personality and Individual Differences, 120, 138–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.08.035
Chang, F. C., Chiu, C. H., Lee, C. M., Chen, P. H., & Miao, N. F. (2014). Predictors of the initiation and persistence of Internet addiction among adolescents in Taiwan. Addictive Behaviors, 39(10), 1434–1440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.05.010
Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14(3), 464–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834
China Internet Network Information Center [CNNIC]. (2021). Statistical Report on Development of Internet in China. Retrieved December 8, 2021, from http://www.cnnic.cn/hlwfzyj/hlwxzbg/hlwtjbg/202109/P020210915523670981527.pdf.
Chong, W. H., Chye, S., Huan, V. S., & Ang, R. P. (2014). Generalized problematic Internet use and regulation of social emotional competence: The mediating role of maladaptive cognitions arising from academic expectation stress on adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 38, 151–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.023
Chou, C., Condron, L., & Belland, J. C. (2005). A review of the research on Internet addiction. Educational Psychology Review, 17(4), 363–388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-005-8138-1
Cole, D. A., Nick, E. A., Varga, G., Smith, D., Zelkowitz, R. L., Ford, M. A., & Ledeczi, A. (2019). Are aspects of Twitter use associated with reduced depressive symptoms? The moderating role of in-person social support. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 22(11), 692–699. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2019.0035
Dalbudak, E., Evren, C., Aldemir, S., Coskun, K. S., Ugurlu, H., & Yildirim, F. G. (2013). Relationship of Internet addiction severity with depression, anxiety, and alexithymia, temperament and character in university students. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 16(4), 272–278. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0390
Davis, R. A. (2001). A cognitive-behavioral model of pathological Internet use. Computers in Human Behavior, 17(2), 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0747-5632(00)00041-8
Erceg, T., BuljanFlander, G., & Brezinšćak, T. (2018). The relationship between compulsive Internet use and symptoms of depression and anxiety in adolescence. Alcoholism and Psychiatry Research, 54(2), 101–112. https://doi.org/10.20471/dec.2018.54.02.02
Evren, E., & Cikrikci, O. (2018). The effect of loneliness on depression: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 64(5), 427–435. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764018776349
Gómez, P., Harris, S. K., Barreiro, C., Isorna, M., & Rial, A. (2017). Profiles of Internet use and parental involvement, and rates of online risks and problematic Internet use among Spanish adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 826–833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.06.027
Gomez-Baya, D., Mendoza, R., Paino, S., Sanchez, A., & Romero, N. (2016). Latent growth curve analysis of gender differences in response styles and depressive symptoms during mid-adolescence. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 41(2), 289–303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-016-9822-9
Gorrochategi, M. P., Munitis, A. E., Santamaria, M. D., & Etxebarria, N. O. (2020). Stress, anxiety, and depression in people aged over 60 in the covid-19 outbreak in a sample collected in northern Spain. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(9), 993–998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2020.05.022
Ha, J. H., Kim, S. Y., Bae, S. C., Bae, S., Kim, H., Sim, M., Lyoo, I. K., & Cho, S. C. (2007). Depression and Internet addiction in adolescents. Psychopathology, 40(6), 424–430. https://doi.org/10.1159/000107426
He, Z. H., Li, M. D., Ma, X. Y., & Liu, C. J. (2021). Family socioeconomic status and social media addiction in female college students: The mediating role of impulsiveness and inhibitory control. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 182(1), 60–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2020.1853027
Hosseinkhani, Z., HassaNaBadi, H. R., Parsaeian, M., Karimi, M., & Nedjat, S. (2020). Academic stress and adolescents mental health: A multilevel structural equation modeling (MSEM) study in northwest of Iran. Journal of Research in Health Sciences, 20(4), 496–503. https://doi.org/10.34172/jrhs.2020.30
Imhof, M., Vollmeyer, R., & Beierlein, C. (2007). Computer use and the gender gap: The issue of access, use, motivation, and performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(6), 2823–2837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2006.05.007
Iyitoglu, O., Çeliköz, & Nadir. (2017). Exploring the impact of Internet addiction on academic achievement. European Journal of Education Studies, 3(5), 38–59. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.439138
Jia, Z., Wang, Y., Yang, Y., & Yang, L. (2018). Chinese university students’ loneliness and generalized pathological Internet use: A longitudinal cross-lagged analysis. Social Behavior and Personality, 46(5), 861–869. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6807
Jones, S., Johnson-Yale, C., Millermaier, S., & Pérez, F. S. (2009). U.S. college students’ Internet use: Race, gender and gigital divides. Journal of Computer-mediated Communication, 14(2), 244–264. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01439.x
Khantzian, E. J. (1997). The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: A reconsideration and recent applications. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 4(5), 231–244. https://doi.org/10.3109/10673229709030550
Kim, J., LaRose, R., & Peng, W. (2009). Loneliness as the cause and the effect of problematic Internet use: The relationship between Internet use and psychological well-Being. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 12(4), 451–455. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2008.0327
Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). The Guilford Press.
Ko, C. H., Liu, T. L., Wang, P. W., Chen, C. S., Yen, C. F., & Yen, J. Y. (2014). The exacerbation of depression, hostility, and social anxiety in the course of Internet addiction among adolescents: A prospective study. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 55(6), 1377–1384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.05.003
Ko, C. H. M. D., Yen, J. Y. M. D., Liu, S. C., Huang, C. F., & Yen, C. F. M. D. P. D. (2009). The associations between aggressive behaviors and Internet addiction and online activities in adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 44(6), 598–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.11.011
Kojima, R., Shinohara, R., Akiyama, Y., Yokomichi, H., & Yamagata, Z. (2021). Temporal directional relationship between problematic internet use and depressive symptoms among Japanese adolescents: A random intercept, cross-lagged panel model. Addictive Behaviors, 120, 106989–106989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106989
Kraut, R., Kiesler, S., Boneva, B., Cummings, J., Helgeson, V., & Crawford, A. (2002). Internet Paradox Revisited. Journal of Social Issues, 58(1), 49–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00248
Kraut, R., Patterson, M., Lundmark, V., Kiesler, S., Mukopadhyay, T., & Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-Being? The American Psychologist, 53(9), 1017–1031. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.53.9.1017
LaRose, R., Lin, C. A., & Eastin, M. S. (2003). Unregulated internet usage: Addiction, habit, or deficient self-regulation? Media Psychology, 5, 225–253. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532785XMEP0503_01
Liang, L., Zhou, D., Yuan, C., Shao, A., & Bian, Y. (2016). Gender differences in the relationship between Internet addiction and depression: A cross-lagged study in Chinese adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 463–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.04.043
Maughan, B., Collishaw, S., & Stringaris, A. (2013). Depression in childhood and adolescence. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 78(5), 359–366. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0021-75572002000500004
McCrae, N., Gettings, S., & Purssell, E. (2017). Social media and depressive symptoms in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review. Adolescent Research Review, 2(4), 315–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-017-0053-4
Meerkerk, G. J., Van den Eijnden, R., & Garretsen, H. F. L. (2006). Predicting compulsive Internet use: It’s all about sex. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 9(1), 95–103. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9.95
Musetti, A., Cattivelli, R., Giacobbi, M., Zuglian, P., Ceccarini, M., Capelli, F., Pietrabissa, G., & Castelnuovo, G. (2016). Challenges in internet addiction disorder: Is a diagnosis feasible or not? Frontier in Psychology, 7, 842. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00842
Musetti, A., & Corsano, P. (2018). The internet is not a tool: Reappraising the model for internet-addiction disorder based on the constraints and opportunities of the digital environment. Frontier in Psychology, 9, 558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00558
Newman, B. M., Newman, P. R., Griffen, S., O’ Connor, K., & Spas, J. (2007). The relationship of social support to depressive symptoms during the transition to high school. Adolescence, 42(167), 441–459. https://go.exlibris.link/Jrx63QYq.
Ni, S., Yang, R., Zhang, Y., & Dong, R. (2015). Effect of gratitude on loneliness of Chinese college students: Socail support as a mediator. Social Behavior and Personality, 43(4), 559–566. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2015.43.4.559
Odaci, H., & Celik, C. B. (2017). Internet sependence in an undergraduate population: The roles of coping with stress, self-efficacy beliefs, and sex role orientation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 55(3), 395–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633116668644
Ostovar, S., Allahyar, N., Aminpoor, H., Moafian, F., Nor, M. B. M., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Internet addiction and its psychosocial risks (depression, anxiety, stress and loneliness) among Iranian adolescents and young adults: A structural equation model in a cross-sectional study. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 14(3), 257–267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-015-9628-0
Ozsaker, M., Muslu, G. K., Kahraman, A., Beytut, D., Yardimci, F., & Basbakkal, Z. (2015). A study on the effects of loneliness, depression and perceived social support on problematic Internet use among University students. Anthropologist (New Delhi, India: 1999), 19(2), 533–542. https://doi.org/10.1080/09720073.2015.11891688
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Quinones, C., & Griffiths, M. D. (2017). The impact of daily emotional demands, job resources and emotional effort on intensive Internet use during and after work. Computers in Human Behavior, 76, 561–575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.020
Rachubinska, K., Cybulska, A. M., & Grochans, E. (2021). The relationship between loneliness, depression, Internet and social media addiction among young Polish women. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, 25(4), 1982–1989. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_202102_25099
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Cutrona, C. E. (1980). The revised UCLA loneliness scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(3), 472–480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.39.3.472
Sawilowsky, S. S. (2007). Real data analysis. Oxford University Press.
Seo, J., Lee, C. S., Lee, Y. J., Lee, M. S., Bhang, S. Y., & Lee, D. (2020). The mediating effect of depressive symptoms on the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and problematic Internet use in children and adolescents. Journal of Korean Medical Science, 35(31), 282–287. https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2020.35.e282
Shapira, N. A., Goldsmith, T. D., Keck, P. E., Khosla, U. M., & McElroy, S. L. (2000). Psychiatric features of individuals with problematic internet use. Journal of Affective Disorders, 57(1), 267–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(99)00107-X
Shapira, N. A., Lessig, M. C., Goldsmith, T. D., Szabo, S. T., Lazoritz, M., Gold, M. S., & Stein, D. J. (2003). Problematic internet use: Proposed classification and diagnostic criteria. Depression and Anxiety, 17(4), 207–216. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.10094
Shi, B.G., & Shen, J. L. (2007). The relationships among family SES, intelligence, intrinsic motivation and creativity. Psychological Development and Education, 23(01), 30–34. https://kns.cnki.net/kcms/detail/detail.aspx?FileName=XLFZ200701005&DbName=CJFQ2007.
Takahashi, M., Adachi, M., Nishimura, T., Hirota, T., Yasuda, S., Kuribayashi, M., & Nakamura, K. (2018). Prevalence of pathological and maladaptive Internet use and the association with depression and health-related quality of life in Japanese elementary and junior high school-aged children. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 53(12), 1349–1359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-018-1605-z
Thombs, B. D., Hudson, M., Schieir, O., Taillefer, S. S., & Baron, M. (2008). Reliability and validity of the center for epidemiologic studies depression scale in patients with systemic sclerosis. Arthritis and Rheumatism, 59(3), 438–443. https://doi.org/10.1002/art.23329
Tian, Y., Bian, Y., Han, P., Gao, F., & Wang, P. (2017). Associations between psychosocial factors and generalized pathological Internet use in Chinese university students: A longitudinal cross-lagged analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 178–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.048
Tian, Y., Zhang, S., Wu, R., Wang, P., Gao, F., & Chen, Y. (2018). Association between specific Internet activities and life satisfaction: The mediating effects of loneliness and depression. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1181–1181. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01181
Trojak, B., Zullino, D., & Achab, S. (2015). Brain stimulation to treat Internet addiction: A commentary. Addictive Behaviors, 64, 363–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.11.006
Valcke, M., Schellens, T., Van Keer, H., & Gerarts, M. (2007). Primary school children’s safe and unsafe use of the Internet at home and at school: An exploratory study. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(6), 2838–2850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2006.05.008
Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2011). Online communication among adolescents: An integrated model of its attraction, opportunities, and risks. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(2), 121–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.08.020
Wang, P., Yan, Y., Gao, F., Zhang, R., Wang, J., Zhan, X., & Tian, Y. (2020). The effect of shyness on adolescent network problem behavior: The role of gender and loneliness. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 803–803. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00803
Whang, L. S. M., Lee, S., & Chang, G. (2003). Internet over-users’ psychological profiles: A behavior sampling analysis on Internet addiction. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 6(2), 143–150. https://doi.org/10.1089/109493103321640338
Wilson, G. S., Pritchard, M. E., & Revalee, B. (2005). Individual differences in adolescent health symptoms: The effects of gender and coping. Journal of Adolescence (London, England), 28(3), 369–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.08.004
Xin, M., Mo, P. K. H., Li, J., Liu, X., Jiang, H., Chen, Y., Ma, L., & Lau, J. T. F. (2022). Smartphone non-users experience disproportionately higher psychological distress than their counterparts: Mediations via psychosocial resources in a large sample of college students in China. Journal of Affective Disorders, 296, 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.09.058
Yao, M. Z., & Zhong, Z. J. (2014). Loneliness, social contacts and Internet addiction: A cross-lagged panel study. Computers in Human Behavior, 30, 164–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.08.007
Yu, Y., Yu, Y., & Lin, Y. (2020). Anxiety and depression aggravate impulsiveness: The mediating and moderating role of cognitive flexibility. Psychology Health and Medicine, 25(1), 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2019.1601748
Zhou, N., Cao, H., Liu, F., Wu, L., Liang, Y., Xu, J., Meng, H., Zang, N., Hao, R., An, Y., Ma, S., Fang, X., & Zhang, J. (2020). A four-wave, cross-lagged model of problematic Internet use and mental health among Chinese college students: Disaggregation of within-person and between-person effects. Developmental Psychology, 56(5), 1009–1021. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000907
Funding
This study was supported in part by the Found of Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province, China [grant number ZR2020MF158].
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Standard
All procedures performed involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committee. All procedures for this study were approved by the Institutional Review Board of Shandong Normal University.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.
Conflict of Interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Fang, X., Tian, M., Wang, R. et al. Relationships between depression, loneliness and pathological Internet use in adolescents: A cross-lagged analysis. Curr Psychol 42, 20696–20706 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03180-1
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03180-1