Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Systematic review of the differences between mothers and fathers in parenting styles and practices

  • Published:
Current Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Parenting is a broad construct that comprises stable and durable attitudes and behaviors regarding child-rearing. Since mothers and fathers play different roles in the family, parenting styles and practices in childhood and adolescence may differ depending on the parents’ and adolescents’ gender. While gender differences in parenting are theoretically warranted, the research literature in this field is considerably limited and lacking conclusive information dealing with this question. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review is to aggregate and synthesize the available research studies containing significant findings on the differences between mothers and fathers in parenting styles and practices. For that purpose, we conducted a systematic search of the PsycInfo, Scopus, Eric, and Web of Science databases, covering literature published from 1990 to 2020. The search was restricted to peer-reviewed studies in English alone. Our findings reveal that mothers as compared to fathers are perceived as more accepting, responsive, and supportive, as well as more behaviorally controlling, demanding, and autonomy granting than fathers. Accordingly, in the studies comparing parents on the constructs of overall parenting styles, mothers were predominantly more authoritative than fathers, and fathers were mostly more authoritarian than mothers (based on both parent and descendant reports). These parental differences established by research from over 15 countries around the globe seem to apply similarly for male and female descendants, while principally not varying by their age.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abubakar, A., de Vijver, F. J. R., Suryani, A. O., Handayani, P., Pandia, W. S., Van de Vijver, F. J. R., Suryani, A. O., Handayani, P., & Pandia, W. S. (2015). Perceptions of parenting styles and their associations with mental health and life satisfaction among urban indonesian adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(9), 2680–2692. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-0070-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67(6), 3296–3319.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumrind, D. (1966). Effects of authoritative parental control on child behavior. Child Development, 37, 887–907.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumrind, D. (1968). Authoritarian vs. authoritative parental control. Adolescence, 3(11), 255.

  • Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 11(1), 56–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumrind, D. (2012). Differentiating between confrontive and coercive kinds of parental power-assertive disciplinary practices. Human Development, 55(2), 35–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bornstein, M. H., Putnick, D. L., & Lansford, J. E. (2011). Parenting attributions and attitudes in cross-cultural perspective. Parenting-Science and Practice, 11(2–3, SI), 214–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2011.585568.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Branscum, P., & Housely, A. (2018). Differences in how mothers and fathers monitor sugar-sweetened beverages for their young children (7-12 years). Health Education & Behavior, 45(2), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198117732111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buri, J. R. (1991). Parental authority questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 57(1), 110–119.

  • Campbell, J., & Gilmore, L. (2007). Intergenerational continuities and discontinuities in parenting styles. Australian Journal of Psychology, 59(3), 140–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, W. A., & Russell, G. (1991). Mother-child and father-child relationships in middle childhood and adolescence: A developmental analysis. Developmental Review, 11(2), 99–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conrade, G., & Ho, R. (2001). Differential parenting styles for fathers and mothers: Differential treatment for sons and daughters. Australian Journal of Psychology, 53(1), 29–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530108255119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crouter, A. C., McHale, S. M., & Bartko, W. T. (1993). Gender as an organizing feature in parent-child relationships. Journal of Social Issues, 49(3), 161–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dallaire, D. H., & Weinraub, M. (2005). The stability of parenting behaviors over the first 6 years of life. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 20(2), 201–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidov, M., & Khoury-Kassabri, M. (2013). Recollections of harsh discipline in childhood and depressive feelings in adulthood: The roles of culture and gender. Children and Youth Services Review, 35(6), 1007–1014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • del Milagro Aymerich, M., Musitu, G., & Palmero, F. (2018). Family socialisation styles and hostility in the adolescent population. Sustainability, 10(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/su10092962.

  • Dufur, M. J., Howell, N. C., Downey, D. B., Ainsworth, J. W., & Lapray, A. J. (2010). Sex differences in parenting behaviors in single-mother and single-father households. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(5), 1092–1106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dwairy, M., & Menshar, K. E. (2006). Parenting style, individuation, and mental health of Egyptian adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 29(1), 103–117.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Forehand, R., & Nousiainen, S. (1993). Maternal and paternal parenting: Critical dimensions in adolescent functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 7(2), 213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gamble, W. C., Ramakumar, S., & Diaz, A. (2007). Maternal and paternal similarities and differences in parenting: An examination of Mexican-American parents of young children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22(1), 72–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.11.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gámez-Guadix, M., & Almendros, C. (2015). Parental discipline in Spain and in the United States: Differences by country, parent-child gender and education level. Infancia y Aprendizaje, 38(3), 569–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/02103702.2015.1054665.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gorostiaga, A., Aliri, J., Balluerka, N., & Lameirinhas, J. (2019). Parenting styles and internalizing symptoms in adolescence: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(17), 3192.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gryczkowski, M. R., Jordan, S. S., & Mercer, S. H. (2010). Differential relations between mothers’ and fathers’ parenting practices and child externalizing behavior. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(5), 539–546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-009-9326-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, N. E. (1995). The relationship between family environment and parenting style: A preliminary study of African American families. Journal of Black Psychology, 21(4), 408–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, C. Y., Hsieh, Y. P., Shen, A. C. T., Wei, H. S., Feng, J. Y., Hwa, H. L., & Feng, J. Y. (2019). Relationships between parent-reported parenting, child-perceived parenting, and children’s mental health in Taiwanese children. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(6), 1049.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hosley, C. A., & Montemayor, R. (1997). Fathers and adolescents. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (3rd ed., pp. 162–178). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaureguizar, J., Bernaras, E., Bully, P., & Garaigordobil, M. (2018). Perceived parenting and adolescents’ adjustment. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 31(1), 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kachel, S., Steffens, M. C., & Niedlich, C. (2016). Traditional masculinity and femininity: Validation of a new scale assessing gender roles. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 956.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, K., & Rohner, R. P. (2002). Parental warmth, control, and involvement in schooling: Predicting academic achievement among Korean American adolescents. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33(2), 127–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lai, K. W., & McBride-Chang, C. (2001). Suicidal ideation, parenting style, and family climate among Hong Kong adolescents. International Journal of Psychology, 36(2), 81–87.

  • Lamborn, S. D., Mounts, N. S., Steinberg, L., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1991). Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families. Child Development, 62(5), 1049–1065.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, J., Han, Y., Grogan-Kaylor, A., Delva, J., & Castillo, M. (2012). Corporal punishment and youth externalizing behavior in Santiago, Chile. Child Abuse and Neglect, 36, 481–490.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E. (1992). The role of parents in the socialization of children: An historical overview. Developmental Psychology, 28, 1006–1017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In P. H. Mussen (Series Ed.) & E. M. Hetherington (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, personality, and social development (pp. 1–101). New York, NY: Wiley.

  • Mastrotheodoros, S., Van der Graaff, J., Deković, M., Meeus, W. H., & Branje, S. J. (2019). Coming closer in adolescence: Convergence in mother, father, and adolescent reports of parenting. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 29(4), 846–862. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12417.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McKinney, C., & Renk, K. (2008). Differential parenting between mothers and fathers: Implications for late adolescents. Journal of Family Issues, 29(6), 806–827. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X07311222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miranda, M. C., Affuso, G., Esposito, C., & Bacchini, D. (2016). Parental acceptance–rejection and adolescent maladjustment: Mothers’ and fathers’ combined roles. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(4), 1352–1362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0305-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151(4), 264–269.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newland, L. A., Chen, H.-H. H.-H., Coyl-Shepherd, D. D., Liang, Y.-C., Carr, E. R., Dykstra, E., & Gapp, S. C. (2013). Parent and child perspectives on mothering and fathering: The influence of ecocultural niches. Early Child Development and Care, 183(3–4), 534–552. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2012.711598.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pakaluk, C. R., & Price, J. (2020). Are mothers and fathers interchangeable caregivers? Marriage & Family Review, 56(8), 784–793.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulson, S. E., & Sputa, C. L. (1996). Patterns of parenting during adolescence: Perceptions of adolescents and parents. Adolescence, 31(122), 369–381.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinquart, M., & Kauser, R. (2018). Do the associations of parenting styles with behavior problems and academic achievement vary by culture? Results from a meta-analysis. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 24(1), 75–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pratt, M., Hoffmann, D., Taylor, M., & Musher-Eizenman, D. (2019). Structure, coercive control, and autonomy promotion: A comparison of fathers’ and mothers’ food parenting strategies. Journal of Health Psychology, 24(13), 1863–1877. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105317707257.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pychyl, T. A., Coplan, R. J., & Reid, P. A. (2002). Parenting and procrastination: Gender differences in the relations between procrastination, parenting style and self-worth in early adolescence. Personality and Individual Differences, 33(2), 271–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quach, A. S., Epstein, N. B., Riley, P. J., Falconier, M. K., & Fang, X. (2015). Effects of parental warmth and academic pressure on anxiety and depression symptoms in Chinese adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(1), 106–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9818-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, C. C., Mandleco, B., Frost Olsen, S., & Hart, C. H. (1995). Authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting practices: Development of a new measure. Psychological Reports, 77, 819–830.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, C. C., Mandleco, B., Olsen, S. F., & Hart, C. H. (2001). The parenting styles and dimensions questionnaire. In B. F. Perlmutter, J. Touliatos, & G. W. Holden (Eds.), Handbook of family measurement techniques: Vol. 3. Instruments & index (pp. 319–321). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

  • Rohner, R. P. (1990). Handbook for the study of parental acceptance and rejection. Storrs, CT: Rohner Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roman, N. V., Makwakwa, T., & Lacante, M. (2016). Perceptions of parenting styles in South Africa: The effects of gender and ethnicity. Cogent Psychology, 3. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2016.1153231.

  • Russell, A., Aloa, V., Feder, T., Glover, A., Miller, H., & Palmer, G. (1998). Sex-based differences in parenting styles in a sample with preschool children. Australian Journal of Psychology, 50(2), 89–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049539808257539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, A., Hart, C., Robinson, C., & Olsen, S. (2003). Children’s sociable and aggressive behaviour with peers: A comparison of the US and Australia, and contributions of temperament and parenting styles. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27(1), 74–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250244000038.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, A., & Saebel, J. (1997). Mother–son, mother–daughter, father–son, and father–daughter: Are they distinct relationships? Developmental Review, 17(2), 111–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer, E. S. (1965). Children’s reports of parental behavior: An Inventory. Child Development, 36,(2) 413–424.

  • Schludermann, E., & Schludermann, S. (1970). Replicability of factors in children’s report of parent behavior (CRPBI). The Journal of Psychology, 76(2), 239–249.

  • Shek, D. T. L. (1998). Adolescents’ perceptions of paternal and maternal parenting styles in a Chinese context. Journal of Psychology, 132(5), 527–537. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223989809599285.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shek, D. T. L. (1995). Chinese adolescnets perceptions of parenting styles of fathers and mothers. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 156(2), 175–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.1995.9914815.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shek, D. T. L., Lee, T. Y. Y., & Chan, L. K. K. (1998). Perceptions of parenting styles and parent-adolescent conflict in adolescents with low academic achievement in Hong Kong. Social Behavior and Personality, 26(1), 89–97. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.1998.26.1.89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegal, M. (1987). Are sons and daughters treated more differently by fathers than by mothers? Devefopmenral Review, 7, 183–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons, L. G., & Conger, R. D. (2007). Linking mother-father differences in parenting to a typology of family parenting styles and adolescent outcomes. Journal of Family Issues, 28(2), 212–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X06294593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smetana, J. G. (1995). Parenting styles and conceptions of parental authority during adolescence. Child Development, 66(2), 299–316.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smetana, J. G. (2017). Current research on parenting styles, dimensions, and beliefs. Current Opinion in Psychology, 15, 19–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sorkhabi, N., & Middaugh, E. (2014). How variations in parents’ use of confrontive and coercive control relate to variations in parent–adolescent conflict, adolescent disclosure, and parental knowledge: Adolescents’ perspective. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23(7), 1227–1241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L. (1990). Authoritative parenting and adolescent adjustment across varied ecological niches.

  • Steinberg, L., Elmen, J. D., & Mounts, N. S. (1989). Authoritative parenting, psychosocial maturity, and academic success among adolescents. Child Development, 60, 1424–1436.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S. D., Dornbusch, S. M., & Darling, N. (1992). Impact of parenting practices on adolescent achievement: Authoritative parenting, school involvement, and encouragement to succeed. Child Development, 63(5), 1266–1281.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tavassolie, T., Dudding, S., Madigan, A. L., Thorvardarson, E., & Winsler, A. (2016). Differences in perceived parenting style between mothers and fathers: Implications for child outcomes and marital conflict. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(6), 2055–2068.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winsler, A., Madigan, A. L., & Aquilino, S. A. (2005). Correspondence between maternal and paternal parenting styles in early childhood. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 20(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2005.01.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X., Ni, S., Ran, M., & Zhang, C. (2017). The relationship between parenting styles and adolescents’ social anxiety in migrant families: A study in Guangdong, China. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 626. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00626.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yaffe, Y. (2017). Development and validation of a new parental authority instrument (PAI). North American Journal of Psychology, 19(1).

  • Yaffe, Y. (2018). Establishing specific links between parenting styles and the s-anxieties in children: Separation, social, and school. Journal of Family Issues, 39(5), 1419–1437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yaffe, Y. (2020a). Comparing Bedouin and Jewish parents’ parenting styles and practices. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 25–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1577283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yaffe, Y. (2020b). Parental authority: A contemporary integrative-theoretical conceptualization. In N. Roman (Ed.), A closer look at parenting styles and practices (pp. 73–96). New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc..

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Education, Ohalo Academic College, Katzrin, Israel

    Yosi Yaffe

  2. Department of Education, Tel-Hai Academic College, Qiryat Shemona, Israel

    Yosi Yaffe

Authors
  1. Yosi Yaffe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yosi Yaffe.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Yaffe, Y. Systematic review of the differences between mothers and fathers in parenting styles and practices. Curr Psychol 42, 16011–16024 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01014-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01014-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation