Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Predicting Reading, Writing, and Mathematics Achievement: Do Anxiety and ADHD Symptoms Add to the Variance Explained by Working Memory and Verbal Reasoning Alone?

  • Published:
Current Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Academic underachievement has been associated with serious long term consequences for children and adolescents, including poorer outcomes within occupational, social, and health domains. Research has shown that student’s cognitive abilities, such as working memory and verbal reasoning, significantly predict achievement outcomes. However, identifying symptomatic factors that influence achievement may be more beneficial in informing appropriate intervention and prevention efforts. In order to determine the impact of such factors on achievement, the current study investigated the degree to which anxious and ADHD symptoms were associated with reading, writing, and mathematics achievement in a clinical service-seeking population beyond the variance explained by working memory and verbal reasoning. Correlations indicated significant positive relationships between cognitive variables, anxiety variables, and achievement outcomes, and a negative relationship between inattention and achievement outcomes. Furthermore, regression analyses indicated that symptomatic factors explained a significant amount of variance in reading and writing, but not mathematics achievement. Inattention was the only individual symptomatic variable that significantly predicted reading and writing achievement within the final regression models.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alloway, T. P., & Alloway, R. (2010). Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 106, 20–29. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alloway, T. P., Elliot, J., & Place, M. (2010). Investigating the relationship between attention and working memory in clinical and community samples. Child Neuropsychology, 16, 242–254. doi:10.1080/09297040903559655.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baddeley, A. (2012). Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 1–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 8, 47–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V., Rijlaarsdam, G. E. R. T., & Fayol, M. (2012). Mapping research questions about translation to methods, measures, and models.Translation of thought to written text while composing: Advancing theory, knowledge, methods, and applications. New York, NY: Psychology Press/Taylor Francis Group, 27–67.

  • Biederman, J., Monuteaux, M. C., Mick, E., Spencer, T., Wilens, T. E., Silva, J. M., et al. (2006). Young adult outcome of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A controlled 10-year follow-up study. Psychological Medicine, 36, 167–179. doi:10.1017/S0033291705006410.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, J., Miller, E., Breslau, N., Bohnert, K., Lucia, V., & Schweitzer, J. (2009). The impact of early behavior disturbances on academic achievement in high school. Pediatrics, 123, 1472–1476.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Burns, T. G. (2010). Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-III: What is the ‘Gold Standard’ for Measuring Academic Achievement? Applied Neuropsychology, 17(3), 234–236.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conners, C. K., Sitarenios, G., Parker, J. D., & Epstein, J. N. (1998). Revision and restandardization of the Conners Teacher Rating Scale (CTRS-R): factor structure, reliability, and criterion validity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26(4), 279–291.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Currie, J., & Stabile, M. (2006). Child mental health and human capital accumulation: The case of ADHD. Journal of Health Economics, 25, 1094–1118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Curtin, F., & Schulz, P. (1998). Multiple correlations and Bonferroni's correction. Biological Psychiatry, 44(8), 775–777. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(98)00043-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández-Castillo, A., & Gutiérrez-Rojas, M. E. (2009). Selective attention, anxiety, depressive symptomatology and academic performance in adolescents. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 7(1), 49–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gathercole, S. E., & Alloway, T. P. (2008). Working memory and classroom learning. In S. K. Thurman & C. A. Fiorello (Eds.), Applied cognitive research in K-3 classrooms (pp. 17–40). New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glutting, J. J., Watkins, M. W., Konold, T. R., & McDermott, P. A. (2006). Distinctions without a difference: The utility of observed versus latent factors from the WISC-IV in estimating reading and match achievement on the WIAT-II. Journal of Special Education, 40, 103–114.

  • Greenblatt, E., Mattis, S., & Trad, P. V. (1990). Nature and prevalence of learning disabilities in a child psychiatric population. Developmental Neuropsychology, 6(2), 71–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grills-Taquechel, A. E., Fletcher, J. M., Vaughn, S. R., Denton, C. A., & Taylor, P. (2013). Anxiety and inattention as predictors of achievement in early elementary school children. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 26(4), 391–410.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ialongo, N., Edelsohn, G., Werthamer-Larsson, L., Crockett, L., & Kellam, S. (1994). The significance of self-reported anxious symptoms in first-grade children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22(4), 441–455.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jarrett, M. A., & Ollendick, T. H. (2008). A conceptual review of the comorbidity of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and anxiety: Implications for future research and practice. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(7), 1266–1280.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jarrett, M., Wolff, J., Davis III, T. E., Cowart, M., & Ollendick, T. H. (2016). Characteristics of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and comorbid anxiety. Journal of Attention Disorders, 20, 636–644.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, P. S., Martin, D., & Cantwell, D. P. (1997). Comorbidity in ADHD: implications for research, practice, and DSM-V. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(8), 1065–1079.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kane, M. J., Brown, L. H., McVay, J. C., Silvia, P. J., Myin-Germeys, I., & Kwapil, T. R. (2007). For whom the mind wanders, and when an experience-sampling study of working memory and executive control in daily life. Psychological Science, 18(7), 614–621. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01948.x.

  • Kofler, M. J., Rapport, M. D., Bolden, J., Sarver, D. E., & Raiker, J. S. (2010). ADHD and working memory: the impact of central executive deficits and exceeding storage/rehearsal capacity on observed inattentive behavior.Journal of. Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(2), 149–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • March, J. S., Parker, J. D., Sullivan, K., Stallings, P., & Conners, C. K. (1997). The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC): factor structure, reliability, and validity. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(4), 554–565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, R. M., Hynd, G. W., Handwerk, M. J., & Hall, J. (1997). Academic underachievement in ADHD subtypes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(6), 635–642.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marzano, R. J. (2000). A new era of school reform: Going where the research takes us. Aurora: Midcontinent Research for Education and Learning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Massetti, G. M., Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Loney, J., Ehrhardt, A., Lee, S. S., & Kipp, H. (2008). Academic achievement over 8 years among children who met modified criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder at 4–6 years of age. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(3), 399–410.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2007). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third and Fourth edition predictors of academic achievement in children with ADHD. School Psychology Quarterly, 22, 234–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S., Calhoun, S. L., Chase, G. A., Mink, D. M., & Stagg, R. E. (2009). ADHD subtypes and co-occurring anxiety, depression, and oppositional-defiant disorder: Differences in Gordon Diagnostic System and Wechsler Working Memory and Processing Speed Index scores. Journal of Attention Disorders, 12, 540550.

  • McGrew, K. S., & Woodcock, R. W. (2001). Technical manual: Woodcock–Johnson III. Itasca: Riverside.

    Google Scholar 

  • Niedo, J., Abbott, R. D., & Berninger, V. W. (2014). Predicting levels of reading and writing achievement in typically developing, English-speaking 2nd and 5th graders. Learning and Individual Differences, 32, 54–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, Jr, W. E., Fabiano, G. A., & Massetti, G. M. (2005). Evidence-based assessment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(3), 449–476. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3403_5.

  • Power, T. J., Costigan, T. E., Eiraldi, R. B., & Leff, S. S. (2004). Variations in anxiety and depression as a function of ADHD subtypes defined by DSM-IV: do subtype differences exist or not? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32(1), 27–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prifitera, A., Saklofske, D. H., Weiss, L. G., & Rolfhus, E. (2005). The WISC-IV in the clinical assessment context.

  • Rabiner, D., & Coie, J. D. (2000). Early attention problems and children’s reading achievement: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 859–867. doi:10.1097/00004583-200007000-00014.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Raghubar, K., Cirino, P., Barnes, M., Ewing-Cobbs, L., Fletcher, J., & Fuchs, L. (2009). Errors in multi-digit arithmetic and behavioral inattention in children with math difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42, 356–371. doi:10.1177/0022219409335211.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Raghubar, K. P., Barnes, M. A., & Hecht, S. A. (2010). Working memory and mathematics: A review of developmental, individual difference, and cognitive approaches. Learning and Individual Differences, 20, 110–122. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2009.10.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reuterskiöld, L., Öst, L. G., & Ollendick, T. (2008). Exploring child and parent factors in the diagnostic agreement on the anxiety disorders interview schedule. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 30(4), 279–290. doi:10.1007/s10862-008- 9081-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rockhill, C. M., Russo, J. E., McCauley, E., Katon, W. J., Richardson, L. P., & Lozano, P. (2007). Agreement between parents and children regarding anxiety and depression diagnoses in children with asthma. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195(11), 897–904. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e318159289c.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, M., Hwang, H., Toplak, M., Weiss, M., & Tannock, R. (2011). Inattention, working memory, and academic achievement in adolescents referred for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Child Neuropsychology, 17(5), 444–458.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sebre, S., Martinsone, B., Raščevska, M., Koļesovs, A., & Skreitule-Pikše, I. (2014). Inattention and anxiety in relation to working memory and processing speed in the Latvian WISC-IV Version. Baltic Journal of Psychology, 15(1,2), 104–114. Retrieved from http://www.lu.lv/fileadmin/user_upload/lu_portal/apgads/PDF/Baltic-Journ-Psych-2014_15_.pdf.

  • Skirbekk, B., Hansen, B. H., Oerbeck, B., & Kristensen, H. (2011). The relationship between sluggish cognitive tempo, subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and anxiety disorders. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(4), 513–525.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stanger, C., & Lewis, M. (1993). Agreement among parents, teachers, and children on internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22(1), 107–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stankov, L., Lee, J., Luo, W., & Hogan, D. J. (2012). Confidence: A better predictor of academic achievement than self-efficacy, self-concept and anxiety? Learning and Individual Differences, 22(6), 747–758.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoeber, J., & Rambow, A. (2007). Perfectionism in adolescent school students: Relations with motivation, achievement, and well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(7), 1379–1389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stornelli, D., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2009). Perfectionism, achievement, and affect in children: A comparison of students from gifted, arts, and regular programs. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 24, 267/283.

  • Swanson, L., & Kim, K. (2006). Working memory, short-term memory, and naming speed as predictors of children’s mathematical performance. Intelligence, 35, 151–168. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.07.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tannock, R. (2008). ADHD with anxiety disorders. In T. E. Brown (Ed.), ADHD comorbidities: Handbook for ADHD complications in children and adults (pp. 131–155). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc..

    Google Scholar 

  • Tannock, R., & Brown, T. E. (2009). ADHD with language and/or learning disorders in children and adolescents. In T. E. Brown (Ed.), ADHD comorbidities: Handbook for ADHD complications in children and adults (pp. 189–231). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc..

    Google Scholar 

  • Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., & Tanzman, M. S. (1991). Bridging the gap between cognitive and neuropsychological conceptualizations of reading disability. Learning and Individual Differences, 3(3), 181–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2003). WISC-IV technical and interpretive manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

  • Weissman, A. S., Chu, B. C., Reddy, L. A., & Mohlman, J. (2012). Attention mechanisms in children with anxiety disorders and in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: implications for research and practice. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 41(2), 117–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Itasca: Riverside.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, 236 Audubon Hall, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA

    Franziska NoackLeSage, Georgia L. Shaheen, Thompson E. Davis III, Peter J. Castagna, Maysa M. Kaskas, Paige Ryan & Megan E. Lilly

Authors
  1. Franziska NoackLeSage
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Georgia L. Shaheen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Thompson E. Davis III
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Peter J. Castagna
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Maysa M. Kaskas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Paige Ryan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Megan E. Lilly
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Franziska NoackLeSage.

Ethics declarations

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Conflict of Interest

All authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

NoackLeSage, F., Shaheen, G.L., Davis, T.E. et al. Predicting Reading, Writing, and Mathematics Achievement: Do Anxiety and ADHD Symptoms Add to the Variance Explained by Working Memory and Verbal Reasoning Alone?. Curr Psychol 38, 792–802 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9649-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9649-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation