Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Predictors of Deliberate Self-Harm Behavior Among Emerging Adolescents: An Initial Test of a Self-Punitiveness Model

  • Published:
Current Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The current study examined the extent to which an expanded self-punitiveness model could be applied to deliberate self-harm (DSH) among students making the transition to university. Specific components of the self-punitiveness model included perfectionism, overgeneralization, self-criticism, and shame. A sample of 319 university students completed a measure of deliberate self-harm as well as two multidimensional perfectionism measures and measures of self-criticism, overgeneralization, and shame. Correlational analyses found few significant associations among deliberate self-harm and the self-punitiveness factors among men. In contrast, among women, deliberate self-harm was associated with dimensions of trait perfectionism such as parental criticism and socially prescribed perfectionism, as well as with overgeneralization, self-criticism, and both characterological shame and bodily shame with the strongest associations found with shame. Supplementary analyses found a strong link between overgeneralization and shame and an association between self-criticism and shame among women. The results support the contention that particularly among young women making the transition to university, deliberate self-harm behavior is a reflection of a self-punitive personality orientation with multiple facets and a sense of shame associated with an overgeneralized sense of failing to meet social expectations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Andrews, B. (2002). Bodily shame and abuse in childhood. In P. Gilbert & J. Miles (Eds.), Bodily shame: Conceptualization, research, and treatment (pp. 256–283). New York: Brunner-Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, B., Qian, M., & Valentine, J. D. (2002). Predicting depressive symptoms with a new measure of shame: the experience of shame scale. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41, 29–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F. (1990). Suicide as escape from the self. Psychological Review, 97, 90–113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. New York: Harper and Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjärehed, J., & Lundh, L.-G. (2008). Deliberate self-harm in 14-year-old adolescents: how frequent is it, and how is it associated with psychopathology, relationship variables, and styles of emotional regulation. Cognitive Behavior Therapy, 37, 26–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolognini, M., Plancherel, B., Laget, J., Stephan, P., & Halfon, O. (2003). Adolescents’ self-mutilation – Relationship with dependent behaviour. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 62, 241–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, M. Z., Comtois, K. A., & Linehan, M. M. (2002). Reasons for suicide attempts and nonsuicidal self-injury in women with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 198–202.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S. (1998). Generalization, adverse events, and development of depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality, 66, 607–619.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Ganellen, R. J. (1983). Depression and components of self-punitiveness: high standards, self-criticism, and overgeneralization. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 92, 330–337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., Ganellen, R. J., & Behar-Mitrani, V. (1985). Depression and cognitive style: comparisons between measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 722–728.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman, A. L., Gratz, K. L., & Brown, M. Z. (2006). Solving the puzzle of deliberate self-harm: the experiential avoidance model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 371–394.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Claes, L., Vandereycken, W., & Vertommen, H. (2005). Self-care versus self-harm: piercing, tattooing, and self-injuring in eating disorders. European Eating Disorder Review, 13, 11–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, J., Kapur, N., Webb, R., Lawlor, M., Guthrie, E., Mackway-Jones, K., et al. (2005). Suicide after deliberate self-harm: a 4-year cohort study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 297–303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dulit, R. A., Fryer, M. R., Leon, A. C., Brodsky, B. S., & Fances, A. J. (1994). Clinical correlates of self-mutilation in borderline personality disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 4, 149–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, G., Hayes, A., Kumar, S., Greeson, J., & Laurenceau, J.-P. (2007). Mindfulness and emotion regulation: the development and initial validation of the Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale-Revised (CAMS-R). Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29, 177–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2006). Positive versus negative perfectionism in psychopathology: a comment on Slade and Owen’s dual process model. Behavior Modification, 30, 472–495.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., & Mittelstaedt, W. M. (1991). Dysphoria and components of self-punitiveness: a re-analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 15, 201–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frost, R., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 449–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frost, R. O., Heimberg, R. G., Holt, C. S., Mattia, J. I., & Neubauer, A. L. (1993). A comparison of two measures of perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 14, 119–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frye, A., & Garber, J. (2005). The relations among maternal depression, maternal criticism, and adolescents’ externalizing and internalizing symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 1–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, P., & Procter, S. (2006). Compassionate mind training for people with high shame and self-criticism: overview and pilot study of a group therapy approach. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 13, 353–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Bellew, R., Mills, A., & Gale, C. (2009). The dark side of competition: how competitive behaviour and striving to avoid inferiority are linked to depression, anxiety, stress, and self-harm. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 82, 123–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glassman, L. H., Weierich, M. R., Hooley, J. M., Deliberto, T. L., & Nock, M. K. (2007). Child maltreatment, non-suicidal self-injury, and the mediating role of self-criticism. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2483–2490.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, A. L., Flett, G. L., Wekerle, C., & Wall, A.-M. (2009). Personality, child maltreatment, and substance use: examining correlates of deliberate self-harm among university students. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 41, 241–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gratz, K. L. (2001). Measurement of deliberate self-harm: preliminary data on the Deliberate Self-Harm Inventory. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 23, 253–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gratz, C. K. L., Conrad, S. D., & Roemer, L. (2002). Risk factors for deliberate self-harm among college students. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72, 128–140.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. M., Harris, M. S., & Carver, C. S. (2004). Predictors of self-esteem variability. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 369–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456–470.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (2002). Perfectionism and stress processes in psychopathology. In G. L. Flett & P. L. Hewitt (Eds.), Perfectionism: theory, research and treatment. Washington: APA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (2004). The multidimensional perfectionism scale: Technical manual. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., Turnbull-Donovan, W., & Mikail, S. F. (1991). The multidimensional perfectionism scale: reliability, validity, and psychometric properties in psychiatric samples. Psychological Assessment, 3, 464–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., Sherry, S. B., & Caelian, C. (2006). Trait perfectionism dimensions and suicidal behavior. In T. E. Ellis (Ed.), Cognition and suicide: Theory, research, and therapy (pp. 215–235). Washington: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kawamura, K. Y., Hunt, S. L., Frost, R. O., & DiBartolo, P. M. (2001). Perfectionism, anxiety, and depression: are the relationships independent? Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 291–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kernis, M. H., Brockner, J., & Frankel, B. S. (1989). Self-esteem and reactions to failure: the mediating role of overgeneralization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 707–714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klonsky, E. D. (2007). The functions of deliberate self-injury: a review of the evidence. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 226–239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klonsky, E. D., & Glenn, C. R. (2009). Assessing the functions of non-suicidal self-injury: psychometric properties of the Inventory About Self-Injury (ISAS). Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 31, 215–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larsson, B., & Sund, A. M. (2008). Prevalence, course, incidence, and 1-year prediction of deliberate self-harm and suicide attempts in early Norwegian school adolescents. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 38, 152–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laye-Gindhu, A., & Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (2005). Nonsuicidal self-harm among community adolescents: understanding the “whats” and “whys” of self-harm. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 447–457.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd-Richardson, E. E., Perrine, N., Dierker, L., & Kelley, M. L. (2007). Characteristics and functions of non-suicidal self-injury in a community sample of adolescents. Psychological Medicine, 37, 1183–1192.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGregor, H. A., & Elliot, A. J. (2005). The shame of failure: examining the link between fear of failure and shame. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 218–231.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, A. L., & Smith, H. L. (2008). Adolescent non-suicidal self-injurious behaviour: the latest epidemic to assess and treat. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 12, 178–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milligan, R.-J., & Andrews, B. (2005). Suicidal and other self-harming behaviour in offender women: the role of shame, anger, and childhood abuse. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 10, 13–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muehlenkamp, J. J., & Gutierrez, P. M. (2007). Risk for suicide attempts among adolescents who engage in non-suicidal self-injury. Archives of Suicide Research, 11, 69–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muehlenkamp, J. J., Hoff, E. R., Licht, J.-G., Azure, J. A., & Hasenzahl, S. J. (2008). Rates of non-suicidal self-injury: a cross-sectional analysis of exposure. Current Psychology, 27, 234–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nock, M. K. (2008). Actions speak louder than words: an elaborated theoretical model of the social functions of self-injury and other harmful behaviors. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 12, 159–168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nock, M. K. (2009). Why do people hurt themselves? New insights into the nature of functions of self-injury. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 78–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nock, M. K., & Prinstein, M. J. (2005). Contextual features and behavioral functions of self-mutilation among adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 140–146.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, R. C. (2007). The relations between perfectionism and suicidality: a systematic review. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 37, 698–714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, R. C., Rasmussen, S., & Hawton, K. (2010). Predicting depression, anxiety, and self-harm in adolescents: the role of perfectionism and acute life stress. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48, 52–59.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orth, U., Berking, M., & Burkhardt, S. (2006). Self-conscious emotions and depression: rumination explains why shame but not guilt is maladaptive. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 1608–1619.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pineda, A. Q., Cole, D. A., & Bruce, A. E. (2007). Mother-adolescent interactions and adolescent depressive symptoms: a sequential analysis. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 24, 5–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pliner, P., Chaiken, S., & Flett, G. L. (1990). Gender differences in concern with body weight and physical appearance over the lifespan. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16, 263–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prezant, D. W., & Neimeyer, R. A. (1988). Cognitive predictors of depression and suicide ideation. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 18, 259–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, S., Heath, N. L., & Toste, J. R. (2009). Non-suicidal self-injury and eating pathology in high school students. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 79, 83–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sansone, R. A., Wiederman, M. W., & Sansone, L. A. (1998). The Self-Harm Inventory (SHI): development of a measure for identifying self-harm behaviors and borderline personality disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 54, 973–983.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sansone, R. A., Wiederman, M. W., Sansone, L. A., & Monteith, D. (2000). Patterns of self-harm behaviour among women with borderline personality symptomatology: psychiatic versus primary care samples. General Hospital Psychiatry, 22, 174–178.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slee, N., Garnefski, N., van der Leeden, R., Arensman, E., & Spinhoven, P. (2008). Cognitive-behavioural intervention for self-harm: randomized control trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 192, 202–211.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stanley, B., Brodsky, B., Nelson, J. D., & Dulit, R. (2007). Brief dialectical behavior therapy (DBT-B) for suicidal behaviour and non-suicidal self-injury. Archives of Suicide Research, 11, 337–341.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stanley, B., Gameroff, M. J., Michalsen, V., & Mann, J. J. (2001). Are suicide attempters who self-mutilate a unique population? The American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 427–432.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stanley, B., Winchel, R., Molcho, A., Simeon, D., & Stanley, M. (1992). Suicide and the self-harm continuum: phenomenological and biochemical evidence. International Review of Psychiatry, 4, 149–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Svirko, E., & Hawton, K. (2007). Self-injurious behaviour and eating disorders: the extent and nature of the association. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviors, 37, 409–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tangney, J. P. (2002). Perfectionism and the self-conscious emotions: Shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride. In G. L. Flett & P. L. Hewitt (Eds.), Perfectionism: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 199–215). Washington: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wedig, M. M., & Nock, M. K. (2007). Parental expressed emotion and adolescent self-injury. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 1171–1178.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitlock, J., Eells, G., Cummings, N., & Purington, A. (2009). Nonsuicidal self-injury in college populations: mental health provider assessment of prevalence and need. Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 23, 172–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yates, T. M., Tracy, A. J., & Luthar, S. S. (2008). Nonsuicidal self-injury among “privileged” youths: longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to developmental processes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 52–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. York University, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Gordon L. Flett

  2. Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Abby L. Goldstein

  3. University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

    Paul L. Hewitt

  4. McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada

    Christine Wekerle

  5. Department of Psychology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, ON, Canada, M3J 1P3

    Gordon L. Flett

Authors
  1. Gordon L. Flett
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Abby L. Goldstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Paul L. Hewitt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Christine Wekerle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gordon L. Flett.

Additional information

Funding for this project was provided by a grant from the Canadian Auto Workers. Support for this study was also provided by a Canada Research Chair in Personality and Health to Gordon Flett, a Canadian Institutes of Health Research New Emerging Team award from the Violence, Gender, and Health Program to Christine Wekerle (Principal Investigator) and Gordon Flett (Co-Investigator), and a Career Award from the Ontario Women’s Health Council/CIHR Institute of Gender and Health Joint Program to Christine Wekerle. We would like to thank Simon Sherry for his helpful comments and suggestions.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Flett, G.L., Goldstein, A.L., Hewitt, P.L. et al. Predictors of Deliberate Self-Harm Behavior Among Emerging Adolescents: An Initial Test of a Self-Punitiveness Model. Curr Psychol 31, 49–64 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-012-9130-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-012-9130-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation