Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Relations of Cognitive Triad, Dysfunctional Attitudes, Automatic Thoughts, and Irrational Beliefs with Test Anxiety

  • Published:
Current Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Previous research has highlighted the important role of cognition in anxiety, including test anxiety. The present study explores the role of cognitive distortions and irrationality in test anxiety by studying the relationships among cognitive triad (core beliefs), dysfunctional attitudes (intermediate beliefs), negative automatic thoughts, irrational beliefs, debilitating test anxiety, and facilitating test anxiety in 138 undergraduates. Multiple regression analyses showed that only the cognitive triad as a whole was a significant predictor of debilitating anxiety. Specifically, negative view of self was a significant predictor of debilitating anxiety. The results supported an expansion of the current cognitive conceptualizations of test anxiety to include the importance of negative self-view. Other implications are also discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alpert, R., & Haber, R. N. (1960). Anxiety in academic achievement situations. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61, 207–215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anastasi, A. (1976). Psychological testing (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, S. B., & Sauser Jr., W. I., (1995). Measurement of test anxiety: An overview. In C. D. Spielberger, & P. R. Vagg (Eds.), Test anxiety: Theory, assessment, and treatment (pp. 15–33). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Causes and treatment. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: New American Library.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, J. S. (1995). Cognitive therapy: Basics and beyond. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Brown, G., Steer, R. A., & Weissman, A. N. (1991). Factor analysis of the dysfunctional attitude scale in a clinical population. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 3, 478–483.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Emery, G., & Greenberg, R. L. (1985). Anxiety disorders and phobias: A cognitive perspective. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, R., & Perkins, T. S. (2001). Cognitive content-specificity for anxiety and depression: Meta-analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 651–663.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beckham, E. E., Leber, W. R., Watkins, J. T., Boyer, J. L., & Cook, J. B. (1986). Development of an instrument to measure Beck’s cognitive triad: The Cognitive Triad Inventory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 566–567.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapell, M. S., Blanding, Z. B., Silverstein, M. E., Takahasi, M., Newman, B., Gubi, A., et al. (2005). Test anxiety and academic performance in undergraduate and graduate students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 268–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, New Jersey: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Covington, M. V., & Omelich, C. L. (1987). “I knew it cold before the exam”: A test of the anxiety-blockage hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 393–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deffenbacher, J. L. (1977). Relationship of worry and emotionality to performance on the Miller Analogies Test. Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, 191–195.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doctor, R. M., & Altman, F. (1969). Worry and emotionality as components of test anxiety: Replication and further data. Psychological Reports, 24, 563–568.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, A. (1991). Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. New York: Citadel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, A. (1993). Reflections on rational-emotive therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 199–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez, H. P. (1995). Systematic desensitization, study skills counseling, and anxiety-coping training in the treatment of test anxiety. In C. D. Spielberger, & P. R. Vagg (Eds.), Test anxiety: Theory, assessment, and treatment (pp. 117–132). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haaga, D. A. F., Dyck, M. J., & Ernst, D. (1991). Empirical status of cognitive theory of depression. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 215–236.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hembree, R. (1988). Correlates, causes, effects, and treatment of test anxiety. Review of Educational Research, 58, 47–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hollandsworth Jr., J. G., Glazeski, R. C., Kirkland, K., Jones, G. E., & Van Norman, L. R. (1979). An analysis of the nature and effects of test anxiety: Cognitive, behavioral, and physiological components. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 3, 165–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hollon, S. D., & Kendall, P. C. (1980). Cognitive self-statements in depression: Development of an Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 4, 383–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunsley, J. (1985). Test anxiety, academic performance, and cognitive appraisals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 678–682.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunsley, J. (1987). Cognitive processes in mathematics anxiety and test anxiety: The role of appraisals, internal dialogue, and attributions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 388–392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, R. E., & Wisnicki, K. S. (1988). Assessment of positive automatic cognition. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 898–902.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, S. P., Frederiksen, N., & Evans, F. R. (1968). Anxiety and learning to formulate hypotheses (RB-68-63). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence Jr., S. W. (1962). The effects of anxiety, achievement motivation, and task importance upon performance on an intelligence test. Journal of Educational Psychology, 53, 150–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liebert, R. M., & Morris, L. M. (1967). Cognitive and emotional components of test anxiety: A distinction and some initial data. Psychological Reports, 20, 975–978.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez, S. J., & Snyder, C. R. (Eds.) (2003). Positive psychological assessment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

  • MacDonald, A. P., & Games, R. G. (1972). Ellis’ irrational values. Rational Living, 7, 25–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandler, G., & Sarason, S. G. (1952). A study of anxiety and learning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47, 166–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mathews, A., & Mackintosh, B. (1998). A cognitive model of selective processing in anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22, 539–560.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (1994). Cognitive approaches to emotion and emotional disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 45, 25–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mcintosh, C., & Fischer, D. G. (2000). Beck’s cognitive triad: One versus three factors. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 32, 153–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meichenbaum, D. (1972). Cognitive modification of test anxious college students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 39, 370–380.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meichenbaum, D., & Butler, L. (1980). In I. G. Sarason (Ed.), Test anxiety: Theory, research, and applications pp. 187–208. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, L. W., & Liebert, R. M. (1969). Effects of anxiety on timed and untimed intelligence tests: Another look. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33, 240–244.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, L. W., & Liebert, R. M. (1970). Relationship of cognitive and emotional components of test anxiety to physiological arousal and academic performance. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 35, 332–337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mueller, J. H., & Thompson, W. B. (1984). Test anxiety and distinctiveness of personal information. In H. M. Van der Ploeg, R. Schwarzer, & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Advances in test anxiety research (vol. 3, (pp. 21–38)). Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nasser, F., Takahashi, T., & Benson, J. (1997). The structure of test anxiety in Israeli-Arab high school students: An application of confirmatory factor analysis with miniscales. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 10, 129–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, G. L., & Eriksen, C. W. (1964). Effects of test anxiety on “real-life” examinations. Journal of Personality, 32, 480–494.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, F. (1973). Coping with anxiety: A guide. Unpublished manuscript, University of Texas at Austin.

  • Sapp, M. (1993). Test anxiety: Applied research, assessment, and treatment interventions. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, I. G. (1960). Empirical findings and theoretical problems in the use of anxiety scales. Psychological Bulletin, 57, 403–415.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, I. G. (1972). Experimental approaches to test anxiety: Attention and the uses of information. In C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety: Current trends in theory and research(vol. 2). New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, I. G. (1980). Introduction to the study of test anxiety. In I. G. Sarason (Ed.), Test anxiety: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 3–14). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, I. G. (1984). Stress, anxiety, and cognitive interference: Reactions to tests. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 929–938.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, I. G. (1987). Test anxiety, cognitive interference, and performance. In R. E. Snow, & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning and instruction: Cognitive and affective process analyses (vol. 3, (pp. 131–142)). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, I. G., & Ganzer, V. J. (1962). Anxiety, reinforcement, and experimental instructions in a free verbalization situation. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 65, 300–307.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, I. G., & Ganzer, V. J. (1963). Effects of test anxiety and reinforcement history on verbal behavior. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 513–519.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, I. G., & Koenig, K. P. (1965). The relationship of test anxiety and hostility to description of self and parents. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2, 617–621.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, I. G., & Stoops, R. (1978). Test anxiety and the passage of time. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1, 102–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzer, R. (1990). Current trends in anxiety research. In P. J. D. Drenth, J. A. Sergeant, & R. J. Takens (Eds.), European perspectives in psychology (vol. 2, (pp. 225–244)). Chichester, England: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seipp, B. (1991). Anxiety and academic performance: A meta-analysis of findings. Anxiety Research, 4, 27–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C. A., & Morris, L. W. (1976). Effects of stimulative and sedative music on cognitive and emotional components of anxiety. Psychological Reports, 38, 187–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sonstroem, R. J. (1984). An overview of anxiety in sport. In J. M. Silva III, & R. S. Weinbery (Eds.), Psychological foundations of sport (pp. 104–117). Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spiegler, M. O., Morris, L. W., & Liebert, R. M. (1968). Cognitive and emotional components of test anxiety: Temporal factors. Psychological Reports, 22, 451–456.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger, C. D. (1966). Theory and research on anxiety. In C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety and behavior pp. 3–20. New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobacyk, J. J., & Downs, A. (1986). Personal construct threat and irrational beliefs as cognitive predictors of increases in musical performance anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 779–782.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tobias, S. (1985). Test anxiety: Interference, defective skills, and cognitive capacity. Educational Psychologist, 20, 135–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tryon, G. S. (1980). The measurement and treatment of test anxiety. Review of Educational Research, 50, 343–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, R. P., Engbretson, R. O., & O’Brien, B. A. (1968). Anxiety and test-taking behavior. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 15, 572–575.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weissman, A. N. (1980). Assessing depressogenic attitudes: A validation study. Paper presented at the 51st Annual Meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, Hartford, Connecticut.

  • Wine, J. (1971). Test anxiety and direction of attention. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 92–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wine, J. D. (1980). Cognitive-attentional theory of test anxiety. In I. G. Sarason (Ed.), Test anxiety: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 349–386). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wine, J. D. (1982). Evaluation anxiety: A cognitive-attentional construct. In H. W. Krohne & L. Laux (Eds.), Achievement, stress and anxiety (pp. 207-219). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908). The relationship of stength of stimulus and rapidity of habit formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18, 459–492.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, J. E. (1990). Cognitive therapy for personality disorders: A schema-focused approach. Sarasota, Florida: Professsional Resource Exchange.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, J. E., Klosko, J. S., & Weishaar, M. E. (2003). Schema Therapy: A Practitioner’s Guide. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeidner, M. (1998). Test anxiety: The state of the art. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychological Studies Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore, 637616, Singapore

    Shyh Shin Wong

Authors
  1. Shyh Shin Wong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shyh Shin Wong.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wong, S.S. The Relations of Cognitive Triad, Dysfunctional Attitudes, Automatic Thoughts, and Irrational Beliefs with Test Anxiety. Curr Psychol 27, 177–191 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-008-9033-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-008-9033-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation