Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The subjective evaluation of well-being in adulthood: Findings and implications

  • Public Forum Papers
  • Invited Paper
  • Published:
Ageing International Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In recent years, a wealth of data focused on the perceived quality of life in adulthood has been produced. Strengthened by improved measures and methodologies, the findings from these research efforts have in some cases challenged, and in other cases confirmed, earlier conclusions regarding the experience of Subjective Well-Being (SWB) across the adult lifespan. Within this article, evidence indicating the importance of demographic, personality, and cultural variables to the experience of SWB is reviewed, with a particular emphasis on the experience of well-being across the adult lifespan. High SWB is related to a number of important life outcomes, such as higher levels of relationship and marital satisfaction, success and satisfaction in work settings, improved ability to cope with stress, and better health outcomes. Evidence from a number of studies indicates that average levels of life satisfaction are relatively similar for groups representing early, middle, and late adulthood, whereas the affective components of SWB show some variability. These findings and their potential implications for interventions, policies, and future research are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Argyle, M., Martin, M., & Lu, L. (1995). Testing for stress and happiness: The role of social and cognitive factors. In Spielberger, C. D. & Sarason, I. G. (Eds.), Stress and Emotion, 15, 173–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baltes, P. B. & Baltes, M. M. (1993). Successful aging: Perspectives from the behavioral sciences. Cambridge University Press: New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biswas-Diener, R. & Diener, E. (2002). Making the best of a bad situation: Satisfaction in the slums of Calcutta. Social Indicators Research, 55, 329–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard-Fields, F. (1998). The role of emotion in social cognition across the life span. In K. W. Schaie & M. P. Lawton (Eds.) Annual review of gerontology and geriatrics: Vol. 17. Emphasis on emotion and adult development (pp. 238–265). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumenthal, J. A. & Gullette, E. C. D. (2002). Exercise interventions and aging: Psychological and physical health benefits in older adults. In K. W. Schaie, H. Leventhal, & S. L. Willis (Eds.), Effective health behavior in older adults (pp. 157–177). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumenthal, J. A., Williams, R. S., Needels, T. L., & Wallace, A. G. (1982). Psychological changes accompany aerobic exercise in healthy middle-aged adults. Psychosomatic Medicine, 44, 529–536.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brändtstadter, J., Wentura, D., & Greve, W. (1993). Adaptive resources of the aging self: Outlines of an emergent perspective. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 16, 323–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brickman, P. & Campbell, D. T. (1971). Hedonic relativism and planning the good society. In M. H. Appley (Ed.),-Adaptation-level theory (pp. 287–305). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, A. (1981). The sense of well-being in America: Recent patterns and trends. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, A., Converse, P. E., & Rodgers, W. L. (1976). The quality of American life. New York: Russell Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cantril, H. (1965). The pattern of human concerns. Rutgers University Press: New Brunswick.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carstensen, L. L. (1992). Social and emotional patterns in adulthood: Support for socioemotional selectivity theory. Psychology and Aging, 7, 331–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carstensen, L. L. (1995). Evidence for a life-span theory of socioemotional selectivity. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 151–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carstensen, L. L. & Charles, S. T. (1998). Emotion in the second half of life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7, 144–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carstensen, L. L. & Fredrickson, B. F. (1992). Aging, illness and social preferences. Paper presented at the International Congress of Psychology, Brussels, Belgium (July).

  • Carstensen, L. L., Pasupathi, M., Mayr, U., & Nesselroade, J. R. (2000). Emotional experience in everyday life across the adult life span. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 644–655.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, P. T. & McCrae, R. R. (1980). Influence of extraversion and neuroticism on subjective well-being: Happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 668–678.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cumming, E. & Henry, W. E. (1961). Growing old: The process of disengagement. Basic Books: New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cutler, S. E., Larsen, R. J., & Bruce, S. C. (1996). Repressive coping style and the experience and recall of emotion: A naturalistic study of daily affect. Journal of Personality, 64, 379–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Danner, D. D., Snowdon, D. A., & Friesen, W. V. (2001). Positive emotions in early life and longevity: Findings from the nun study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 804–813.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeNeve, K. M., & Cooper, H. (1998). The happy personality: A meta-analysis of 137 personality traits and subjective well being. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 197–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542–575.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55, 34–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. & Biswas-Diener, R. (2002). Will money increase subjective well-being? Social Indicators Research, 57, 119–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. & Diener, C. (1996). Most people are happy. Psychological Science, 7, 181–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. & Emmons, R. A. (1984). The independence of positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1105–1117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Nickerson, C., Lucas, R. E., & Sandvik, E. (2001). Dispositional affect and job outcomes. Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • Diener, E., Oishi, S., and Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 403–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Sandvik, E., and Larsen, R. J. (1985). Age and sex effects for emotional intensity. Developmental Psychology, 21, 542–546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Sandvik, E., Seidlitz, L., & Diener, M. (1993). The relationship between income and subjective well-being: Relative or absolute? Social Indicators Research, 28, 195–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. & Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Very happy people. Psychological Science, 13, 81–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. & Suh, E. (1998). Subjective well-being and age: An international analysis. In K. W. Schaie and M. P. Lawton (eds.), Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 17 (pp.304–324). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 276–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donovan, N. & Halpern, D. (2002). Life satisfaction: The state of knowledge and implications for government. London: Downing Street Strategy Unit. Retrieved from: http://www.strategy.gov.uk/2002/futures/attachments/ls/paper.pdf

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. & Joiner, T. (2002). Positive emotions trigger upward spirals toward emotional well-being. Psychological Science, 13, 172–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fry, P. S. (2001). Predictors of health-related quality of life perspectives, self-esteem, and life satisfactions of older adults following spousal loss: An 18-month follow-up study of widows and widowers. Gerontologist, 41, 787–798.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fujita, F. (1991). An investigation of the relation between extraversion, neuroticism, positive affect, and negative affect. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

  • Fujita, F., Diener, E., & Sandvik, E. (1991). Gender differences in negative affect and well-being: The case for emotional intensity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 427–434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glenn, N. D. & Weaver, C. N. (1981). The contributions of marital happiness to global happiness. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 43, 161–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J., Carstensen, L. L., Pasupathi, M., Tsai, J., Skorpen, C. G., and Hsu, A. Y. C. (1997). Emotion and aging: Experience, expression, and control. Psychology and Aging, 12, 590–599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gullette, E. C. D. & Blumenthal, J. A. (1996). Exercise therapy for the prevention and treatment of depression. Journal of Practical Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, 5, 263–271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Headey, B. & Wearing, A. (1992). Understanding happiness: A theory of subjective well-being. Melbourne, Australia: Longman Cheshire.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1999). It there a universal need for positive self-regard? Psychological Review, 106, 766–794.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heine, S. J., Takata, T., & Lehman, D. R. (2000). Beyond self-presentation: Evidence for self-criticism among Japanese. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 71–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hermans, H. J. & Kempen, H. J. G. (1998). Moving cultures: The perilous problems of cultural dichotomies in a globalizing society. American Psychologist, 53, 1111–1120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, D. S. (2001). Abnormal psychology (4th ed.), Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inglehart, R. (1990). Culture shift in advance industrial society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahneman, D. (1999). Objective happiness. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, and N. Schwarz (eds.), Well-being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology (pp. 3–25). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kammann, R. & Flett, R. (1983). Affectometer 2: A scale to measure current level of general happiness. Australian Journal of Psychology, 35, 259–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koivumaa-Honkanen, H., Honkanen, R., Koskenvuo, M., Vinamaki, H., & Kaprio, J. (2002). Life satisfaction as a predictor of fatal injury in a 20-year follow-up. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 105, 444–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kozma, A., Stone, S., & Stones, M. J. (1997, November 20–23). Stability in components and predictors of subjective well-being. Paper delivered at the First Conference of the International Society of Quality of Life Studies: Charlotte, North Carolina.

  • Kramer, B. (1997). Gain in the caregiving experience: Where are we? What next? The Gerontologist, 37, 218–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kubzansky, L. D., Sparrow, D., Vokonas, P., & Kawachi, I. (2001). Is the glass half empty or half full? A prospective study of optimism and coronary heart disease in the normative aging study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 63, 910–916.

    Google Scholar 

  • Labouvie-Vief, G., Hakim-Larson, J., DeVoe, M., & Schoeberlein, S. (1989). Emotions and self-regulation: A lifespan view. Human Development, 32, 279–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lang, F. R. & Heckhausen, J. (2001). Perceived control over development and subjective well-being: Differential benefits across adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 509–523.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, R. J. & Fredrickson, B. L. (1999). Measurement issues in emotion research. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, and N. Schwarz (eds.), Well-being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology (pp. 40–60). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawton, M. P. (2001). Emotion in later life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10: 120–123

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawton, M. P., Kleban, M. H., Rajagopal, D., & Dean, J. (1992). The dimensions of affective experience in three age groups. Psychology and Aging, 7, 171–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawton, M. P., Rajagopal, D., Brody, E., & Kleban, (1992). The dynamics of caregiving for a demented elder among black and white families. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 47, S156-S164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, A. Y., Aaker, J. L., & Gardner, W. L. (2000). The pleasures and pains of distinct self-construals: The role of interdependence in regulatory focus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 1122–1134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, R. W., Carstensen, L. L., Friesen, W. V., & Ekman, P. (1991). Emotion, physiology, and expression in old age. Psychology and Aging, 6, 28–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levy, B. R., Slade, M. D., Kunkel, S. R., & Kasl, S V. (2002). Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 261–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, R. E., Clark, A. E., Georgellis, Y., & Diener, E. (2003). Re-examining adaptation and the set point model of happiness: Reactions to changes in marital status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 527–539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, R. E., Clark, A. E., Georgellis, Y., & Diener, E. (2004). Unemployment alters the set-point for life satisfaction. Psychological Science, 15, 8–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, R. E., Diener, E., & Suh, E. (1996). Discriminant validity of well-being measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 616–628.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, R. E. & Fujita, F. (2000). Factors influencing the relation between extraversion and pleasant affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1039–1056.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, R. E. & Gohm, C. L. (2000). Age and sex differences in subjective well-being across cultures. In E. Diener & E. M. Suh (Eds.), Culture and subjective well-being, (pp. 291–318.) Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lykken, D. & Tellegen, A. (1996). Happiness is a stochastic phenomenon. Psychological Science, 7, 186–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2002). Happiness is a good thing: A theory of the benefits of positive affect. Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marks, G. N. & Fleming, N. (1999). Influences and consequences of well-being among Australian young people: 1980–1995. Social Indicators Research, 46, 301–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moberg, D. O. & Taves, M. J. (1965). Church participation and adjustment in old age. In A. M. Rose and W. A. Peterson (Eds.), Older people and their social world. (pp. 113–124). Philadelphia: F. A. Davis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neugarten, B. L., Havighurst, R. J., & Tobin, S. (1961). The measurement of life satisfaction. Journal of Gerontology, 16, 134–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. & Rusting, C. L. (1999). Gender differences in well-being. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, and N. Schwarz (eds.), Well-being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology (pp. 330–352). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oishi, S. (2001). Culture and memory for emotional experiences: on-line versus retrospective judgments of subjective well-being. Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(10-B): 5625.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostir, G. V., Markides, K.S., Black, S. A., & Goodwin, J. S. (2000). Emotional well-being predicts subsequent functional independence and survival. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 48, 473–478.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavot, W. & Diener, E. (1993a). Review of the Satisfaction With Life Scale. Psychological Assessment, 5, 164–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pavot, W. & Diener, E. (1993b). The affective and cognitive context of self-reported measures of subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research, 28, 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pavot, W. & Diener, E. (2003). Well-being (including life satisfaction). In R. Fernandez-Ballesteros (Ed.), Encyclopedia of psychological assessment, 2 (pp. 1097–1101). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavot, W. G., Diener, E., Colvin, C. R., & Sandvik, E. (1991). Further validation of the Satisfaction with Life Scale: Evidence for the cross-method convergence of well-being measures. Journal of Personality Assessment, 57, 149–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pollner, M. (1989). Divine relations, social relations, and well-being.-Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30, 92–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D. & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sandvik, E., Diener, E., & Seidlitz, L. (1993). Subjective well-being: The convergence and stability of self-report and non-self-report measures. Journal of Personality, 61, 317–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, N. & Strack, F. (1991). Evaluating one’s life: A judgment model of subjective well-being. In F. Strack, M. Argyle, & N Schwarz (Eds.), Subjective well-being: An interdisciplinary perspective. Oxford: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scollon, C. N., Kim-Prieto, C., & Diener, E. (2003). Experience sampling: Promises and pitfalls, strengths and weaknesses. Journal of Happiness Studies, 4, 5–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Staw, B. M., Sutton, R. I., & Pelled, L. H. (1994). Employee positive emotion and favorable outcomes at the workplace. Organization Science, 5, 51–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stroebe, W., Stroebe, M., Abakoumkin, G., & Schut, H. (1996). The role of loneliness and social support in adjustment to loss: A test of attachment versus stress theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1241–1249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tellegen, A., Lykken, D. T., Bouchard, T. J., Wilcox, K. J., Segal, N. L., & Rich, S. (1988). Personality similarity in twins reared apart and together. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1031–1039.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillant, G. E. (2000). Adaptive mental mechanisms: Their role in a positive psychology. American Psychologist, 55, 89–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitaliano, P. P., Russo, J., Young, H. M., Becker, J., & Maiuro, R. D. (1991). The screen for caregiver burden. The Gerontologist, 31, 76–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitaliano, P. P., Zhang, J., & Scanlan, J. M. (2003). Is caregiving hazardous to one’s physical health? A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 946–972.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, W. (1967). Correlates of avowed happiness. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 249–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Values Study Group. (1994). World Values Survey, 1981–1984 and 1990–1993. (Computer file, ICPSR version). Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Southwest Minnesota State University, 56258, Marshall, MN

    William Pavot

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 603 East Daniel Street, 61820, Champaign, IL

    Ed Diener Ph.D (Alumni Professor of Psychology)

Authors
  1. William Pavot
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ed Diener Ph.D
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to William Pavot or Ed Diener Ph.D.

Additional information

William Pavot, Ph.D. received his B. A. in psychology from Purdue University, and completed his A. M. and Ph.D. degrees in psychology from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. His current position is professor of psychology at Southwest Minnesota State University in Marshall, Minnesota. Dr. Pavot has been pursing research in the area of subjective well-being for 18 years. His specific interests are focused on issues surrounding the assessment of life satisfaction. He has conducted research on the experience of life satisfaction across the adult lifespan, and has also explored cross-cultural aspects of subjective well-being.

Dr. Diener received his Ph.D. at the University of Washington in Seattle in 1974. Professor Diener is past-president of the International Society of Quality of Life Studies, and has also served as past-president of the Society of Personality and Social Psychology. Dr. Diener’s research focuses on several aspects of subjective well-being, including measurement issues, the influence of personality on the experience of well-being, and cultural influences on subjective well-being. He has conducted a wide array of research exploring these topics, and his work is frequently cited by other researchers of subjective well-being.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Pavot, W., Diener, E. The subjective evaluation of well-being in adulthood: Findings and implications. Ageing Int. 29, 113–135 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12126-004-1013-4

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12126-004-1013-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation