Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Private Regard, Identity Protection and Perceived Racism among African American Males

  • Articles
  • Published:
Journal of African American Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Previous research has documented the negative effects of racism on the psychological health of African American males. However, consideration of racial identity as a potential buffer against racist experiences has received limited attention. This analysis investigates whether one dimension of the Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity, private regard, reduces the effect of racism on internalizing symptoms in 107 African American late-adolescent males. Findings show that racist experiences were positively associated with greater anxiety and depressive symptoms. Results also indicated that private regard reduced the impact of racist experiences, but only for anxiety symptoms. Specifically, males with lower private who also experienced racism had greater anxiety as compared to those with higher private regard. The potential clinical benefits of private regard for African American males are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Albano, A. M., Chorpita, B. F., & Barlow, D. H. (2003). Childhood anxiety disorders. In E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.) Child psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 279–329). New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, E. (1997). Streetwise: Race, class, and change in an urban community. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Appiah, K. A. (2000). Racial identity and racial identification. In L. Back, & J. Solomos (Eds.) Theories of race and racism: A reader (pp. 607–615). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, S. (2005). The cost of being poor: A comparative study of life in poor urban neighborhoods in Gary, Indiana. New York: State University Press of New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolton, D., Eley, T. C., O’Connor, T. G., Perrin, S., Rabe-Hesketh, S., Rijsdijk, F., et al. (2006). Prevalence and genetic and environmental influences on anxiety disorders in 6-year-old twins. Psychological Medicine, 36, 335–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burlew, A. K. (2003). Research with ethnic minorities: Conceptual, methodological, and analytical issues. In G. Bernal, J. E. Trimble, A. K. Burlew, & F. T. Leong (Eds.) Handbook of racial and ethnic minority psychology (pp. 179–187). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Cauce, A. M., Ryan, K. D., & Grove, K. (1998). Children and adolescents of color, where are you? Participation, selection, recruitment and retention in developmental research. In V. C. McLoyd, & L. Steinberg (Eds.) Studying minority adolescents: Conceptual, methodological, and theoretical issues (pp. 147–166). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805–816.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, P. H. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooley-Quille, M., Boyd, R. C., Frantz, E., & Walsh, J. (2001). Emotional and behavioral impact of exposure to community violence in inner-city adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 199–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cross WE Jr. (1991) Shades of black: Diversity in African American identity. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

  • Cunningham, M. (2001). African American male adolescents. In J. V. Lerner, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), and J. Finkelstein (Adv. Ed.), Adolescence in America: An encyclopedia (Vol. 1, pp. 32–34). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio.

  • Deardorff, J., Gonzales, N. A., & Sandler, I. N. (2003). Control beliefs as a mediator of the relation between stress and depressive symptoms among inner-city adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 205–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dergotis, L. R., & Meisarotis, N. (1983). The brief symptom inventory: An introductory report. Psychological Medicine, 13, 595–605.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (1998). On the nature of contemporary prejudice: The causes, consequences, and challenges of aversive racism. In J. L. Eberhardt, & S. T. Fiske (Eds.) Confronting racism: The problem and the response (pp. 3–32). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, D. L., Foa, E. B., Gur, R. E., Hendin, H., O’Brien, C. P., Seligman, M. E. P., & Walsh, T.(Eds.). (2004). Treating and preventing adolescent mental health disorders: What we know and don’t know: A research agenda for improving the mental health of our youth. New York: Oxford University Press.

  • Franklin, A. J., & Boyd-Franklin (2000). Invisibility syndrome: A clinical model of the effects of racism on African-American males. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 33–41.

  • Gaertner, J., & Dovidio, S. (1986). Prejudice, racism, and discrimination. Orlando: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • García Coll, C., & Szalacha, L. A. (2004). The multiple contexts of middle childhood. The Future of Children, 14, 81–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, K. E., Lyons, A. L., Finkelstein, J. S., Conway, K. M., Reynolds, L. K., O’Koon, J. H., Waitkoff, G. R., & Hicks, K. J. (2004). Gender differences in rates of depressive symptoms among low-income, urban, African American youth: A test of two mediational hypotheses. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 523–533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greene, M. L., Way, N., & Pahl, K. (2006). Trajectories of perceived adult and peer discrimination among Black, Latino, and Asian American Adolescents: Patterns and psychological correlates. Developmental Psychology, 42, 218–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C., & Rudolph, K. D. (2003). Childhood mood disorders. In E. J. Mash, & R. A. Barkley (Eds.) Child Psychopathology (pp. 233–278, 2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrell, S. P. (1997a). Development and initial validation of scales to measure racism-related stress. Unpublished manuscript, Pepperdine University.

  • Harrell, S. P. (1997b). The Racism and Life Experiences Scales (RaLES-Revised). Unpublished manuscript, Pepperdine University.

  • Harrell, S. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 42–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joe, S., & Kaplan, M. S. (2002). Firearm-related suicide among young African-American males. Psychiatric Services, 53, 332–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, H., Cross, W., & DeFour, D. (2008). Race-related stress, racial identity attitudes, and mental health among black women. Journal of Black Psychology, 33, 208–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Judd, C. M., Blair, I. V., & Chapleau, K. M. (2004). Automatic stereotypes vs. automatic prejudice: Sorting out the possibilities in the Payne (2001) weapon paradigm. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 75–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1999). The schedule of racist events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental consequences. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 144–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Joiner Jr., T. E., & Rohde, P. (2001). Evaluation of cognitive diathesis-stress models in predicting major depressive disorder in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 203–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Coatsworth, A. S. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. American Psychologist, 53, 205–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C. (1990). The impact of economic hardship on Black families and children: Psychological distress, parenting, and socioemotional development. Child Development, 61, 311–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miranda, J. (1996). Introduction to the special section on recruiting and retaining minorities in psychotherapy research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 848–850.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, H. F., Lewis, T. T., & Parker-Dominguez, T. (2003). Stress, coping, and minority health: Biopsychosocial perspective on ethnic health disparities. In G. Bernal, J. E. Trimble, A. K. Burlew, & F. T. Leong (Eds.) Handbook of racial and ethnic minority psychology (pp. 377–400). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Nagayama Hall, G. C. (2001). Psychotherapy research with ethnic minorities: Empirical, ethical, and conceptual issues. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 502–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neal-Barnett, A. (2004). Orphans no more: A commentary on anxiety and African American youth. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 276–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neblett, E. W., Shelton, J. N., & Sellers, R. M. (2004). The role of racial identity in managing daily racial hassles. In G. Philogine (Ed.) Racial identity in context: The legacy of Kenneth B. Clark (pp. 77–90). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Neville, H. A., & Lily, R. L. (2002). The relationship between racial identity cluster profiles and psychological distress among African American college students. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 28(4), 194–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nyborg, V. M., & Curry, J. F. (2003). The impact of perceived racism: Psychological symptoms among African American boys. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 258–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Omi, M., & Winant, H. (1986). Racial formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1980s. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Park, R. (2000). The nature of race relations. In L. Back, & J. Solomos (Eds.) Theories of race and racism: A reader (pp. 105–112). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phinney, J. S., & Kohatsu, E. L. (1997). Ethnic and racial identity development and mental health. In J. Schulenberg, J. L. Maggs, & K. Hurrelmann (Eds.) Health risks and developmental transitions during adolescence (pp. 420–443). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pierce, C. M. (1995). Stress analogs of racism and sexism: Terrorism, torture, and disaster. In C. V. Willie, P. P. Rieker, B. M. Kramer, & B. S. Brown (Eds.) Mental health, racism, and sexism (pp. 277–293). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rende, R., Slomkowski, C., Lloyd-Richardson, E., Stroud, L., & Niaura, R. (2006). Estimating genetic and environmental influences on depressive symptoms in adolescence: Differing effects on higher and lower levels of symptoms. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 35, 237–243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Repetto, P. B., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Trajectories of depressive symptoms among high-risk African American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 35, 468–477.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, M. H., Larson, R., Miller, B. V., Luo, Z., Sims, B., Parrella, D. P., et al. (2004). Risky and protective contexts and exposure to violence in urban African American young adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33, 138–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rome, D. (2004). Black demons: The media’s depiction of the African American male criminal stereotype. Westport, CT: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sellers, R. M., Chavous, T. M., Rowley, S. A. J., Shelton, J. N., & Smith, M. A. (1997). The Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity: Preliminary investigation of construct validity and reliability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 805–815.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sellers, R. M., Copeland-Linder, N., Martin, P. P., & Lewis, R. L. (2006). Racial identity matters: The relationship between racial discrimination and psychological functioning in African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 187–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sellers, R. M., & Shelton, J. N. (2003). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1079–1092.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, J., Rowley, S. A. J., & Chavous, T. M. (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 18–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, R. L., Murry, V., McLoyd, V., Lin, K.-H., Cutrona, C., & Conger, R. D. (2002). Discrimination, crime, ethnic identity, and parenting as correlates of depressive symptoms among African American children: A multilevel analysis. Development & Psychopathology, 14, 371–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, M. B., Fegley, S. G., & Harpalani, V. (2003). A theoretical and empirical examination of identity as coping: Linking coping resources to the self processes of African American youth. Applied Developmental Science, 7, 181–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. E., Townsend, T. G., & Belgrave, F. Z. (2003). The influence of cultural and racial identification on the psychosocial adjustment of inner-city African American children in school. American Journal of Community Psychology, 32, 217–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, L. M., Hansbrough, E., & Walker, E. (2000). Contributions of music video exposure to Black adolescents’ gender and sexual schemas. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 143–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • West, C. (1993). Race matters. Boston: Beacon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., & Williams-Morris, R. (2000). Racism and mental health: The African American experience. Ethnicity and Health, 5, 243–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, C. A., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. (2003). The influences of ethnic discrimination and ethnic identification on African American adolescent’s school and socioemotional adjustment. Journal of Personality, 71, 1197–1232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M. A., Ramirez-Valles, J., Zapert, K. M., & Maton, K. I. (2000). A longitudinal study of stress-buffering effects for urban African American male adolescent problem behaviors and mental health. Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 17–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA

    Mia Smith Bynum, Candace Best & E. Thomoseo Burton

  2. Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA

    Sandra L. Barnes

  3. Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA

    Mia Smith Bynum

Authors
  1. Mia Smith Bynum
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Candace Best
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Sandra L. Barnes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. E. Thomoseo Burton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mia Smith Bynum.

Additional information

This research was presented as a poster presentation at the 2006 convention of the Association for Psychological Science. We thank the Purdue University College of Liberal Arts and the Arthur F. Krueger Scholarship Fund for financial support of this research. We also thank Donald R. Lynam and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on an earlier version on this article.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bynum, M.S., Best, C., Barnes, S.L. et al. Private Regard, Identity Protection and Perceived Racism among African American Males. J Afr Am St 12, 142–155 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-008-9038-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-008-9038-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation