Abstract
Police officers have often been reported to experience high rates of suicide compared to the general population. Suicidal ideation (SI) is considered a strong predictor of suicidal acts. However, few studies have examined SI in U.S. law enforcement officers. This study investigated the prevalence of SI and the association between SI and amount of subjective work-related traumatic stress, personal relationship stress, work-related but non-traumatic stress, age, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, alcohol use, and posttraumatic growth among law enforcement officers (N = 193) from a Midwestern state. Multiple regression analysis demonstrated that greater depression symptoms significantly predicted greater SI among officers.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aamodt MG (2008) Reducing misconceptions and false beliefs in police and criminal psychology. Crim Justice Behav 35:1231–1240
Aamodt MG, Stalnaker NA (2001) Police officer suicide: frequency and officer profiles. In: Shehan DC, Warren JI (eds) Suicide and law enforcement. Washington, DC; Federal Bureau of Investigation
Ahrens B, Linden M, Zaske H, Berzewski H (2000) Suicidal Behavior- symptom or disorder? Compr Psychiatry 41:116–121
Amaranto E, Steinberg J, Castellano C, Mitchell R (2003) Police stress Interventions. Brief Treat Crisis Interv 3:47–53
American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental Disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC; Author
Baas KD, Cramer A, Koeter M, Van De Lisdonk E, Van Wert H, Schene A (2011) Measurement invariance with respect to ethnicity of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). J Affect Disord 129:229–235
Babor TF, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG (2001) The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: Guideline for use in primary care, 2nd edn. World Health Organization, Geneva
Berg AM, Hem E, Lau B, Loeb M, Ekeberg O (2003) Suicidal ideation and attempts in Norwegian police. Suicide Life Threat Behav 33:302–312
Bohn MJ, Babor TF, Kranzler HR (1995) The Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT): validation of a screening instrument for use in medical settings. J Stud Alcohol 56:423–432
Borges G, Angst J, Nock MK, Ruscio AM, Walters EE, Kessler RC (2006) Risk factors for 12-month suicide attempts in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Psychol Med 36:1747–1757
Burke RJ, Mikkelson A (2007) Suicidal ideation among police officers in Norway. Polic Int J Police Strateg Manag 30:228–236
Cantor C, Tyman R, Slater P (1999) A historical survey of police in Queensland, Australia, 1843-1992. Suicide Life Threat Behav 25:499–507
Cetuk NB (2006) Police suicide: Causes, effects, and intervention, an educational program for police officers in the early identification and intervention of suicidal behavior. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 67(6-B)
Chabrol H, Rodgers R, Rousseau A (2007) Relations between suicidal ideation and dimensions of depressive symptoms in high-school students. J Adolesc 30:587–600
Chamberlain P, Goldney R, Delfabrro P, Gill T, Dal Grande L (2009) Suicidal ideation: the clinical utility of the K10. J Crisis Interv Suicide Prev 30:39–42
Charbonneau F (2000) Suicide among the police in Quebec. Population 55:367–378
Chen H, Chou F, Chen M, Su S, Wang S, Feng W (2006) A survey of quality of life and depression for police officers in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Qual Life Res 15:925–932
Chopko BA, Schwartz RC (2012) Correlates of career traumatization and symptomatology among active-duty police officers. Crim Justice Stud 25:83–95
Cukrowicz KC, Ekblad AG, Cheavens JS, Rosenthal MZ, Lynch TR (2008) Coping and thought suppression as predictors of suicidal ideation in depressed older adults with personality disorders. Aging Ment Health 12:149–157
Dempsey JS, Forst LS (2010) Police. Delmar, Clifton Park
Fairweather-Schmidt AK, Anstey KJ (2011) Prevalence of suicidal behaviours in two Australian general population surveys: methodological considerations when comparing across studies. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 46:1–8
Gallaway MS, Millikan AM, Bell MR (2011) The association between deployment-related posttraumatic growth among U.S. Army soldiers and negative behavioral health conditions. Journal of Clinical Psychology 67:1151–1160
Gili-Planas M, Roca-Bennasar M, Ferrer-Perez V, Bernardo-Arroyo M (2001) Suicidal ideation, psychiatric disorder, and medical illness in a community epidemiological study. Suicide Life Threat Behav 31:207–213
Goldberg DP, Hillier VF (1979) A scaled version of the General Health Questionnaire. Psychol Med 9:139–145
Goldney RD, Winefield AH, Tiggemann M, Winefield HR, Smith S (1989) Suicidal ideation in a young adult population. Acta Psychiatr Scand 79:481–489
Goldney RD, Harris L, Badri A, Michael S, Fisher L (1998) Suicidal ideation in Sudanese women. Crisis J Crisis Interv Suicide Prev 19:154–158
Goldney RD, Wilson D, Dal Grande E, Fisher LJ, McFarlane AC (2000) Suicidal ideation in a random community sample: attributable risk due to depression and psychosocial and traumatic events. Aust N Z J Psychiatr 34:98–106
Goldney RD, Smith S, Winefield AH, Tiggeman M, Winefield HR (2001) Suicidal ideation: its enduring nature and associated morbidity. Acta Psychiatr Scand 83:115–120
Goldney RD, Dunn KI, Air TM, Dal Grande E, Taylor AW (2009) Relationships between body mass index, mental health, and suicidal ideation: population perspective using two methods. Aust N Z J Psychiatr 43:652–658
Guerra VS, Calhoun PS (2011) Examining the relation between posttraumatic stress disorder and suicidal ideation in an OEF/OIF veteran sample. J Anxiety Disord 25:12–18
Gul Z, Delice M (2011) Police job stress and stress reduction/coping programs: the effects on the relationship with spouses. Turk J Police Stud 13:19–38
Hallfors DD, Waller MW, Ford CA, Halpern CT, Brodish PH, Iritani B (2004) Adolescent depression and suicide risk: associations with sex and drug behavior. Am J Prev Med 27:224–231
Hamilton TK, Schweitzer RD (2000) The cost of being perfect: perfectionism and suicide ideation in university students. Aust N Z J Psychiatr 34:829–835
Hem E, Berg AM, Ekeberg O (2001) Suicide in police: a critical review. Suicide Life Threat Behav 31:224–233
Hendlin H, Haas A (1991) Suicide and guilt as manifestations of PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans. Am J Psychiatry 148:586–591
Hurrell JJ (1984) Stress among police officers. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati
Jahn DR, Cukrowicz KC, Linton K, Prabhu F (2011) The mediating effect of perceived burdensomeness on the relation between depressive symptoms and suicide ideation in a community sample of older adults. Aging Ment Health 15:214–220
Janik J, Kravitz HM (1994) Linking work and domestic problems with police suicide. Suicide and Life Threatening Behvior 24:267–274
Kelly B, Raphael B, Judd F, Perdices M, Kernutt G, Burnett P (1998) Suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and HIV infection. Psychosomatics 39:405–415
Kenney DJ (1999) Police and policing: Contemporary issues. Praeger, Westport
Kessler RC, Berglund P, Borges G, Nock M, Wang PS (2005) Trends in suicidal ideation, plans, gestures, and attempts in the United States, 1990-1992 to 2001-2003. JAMA 293:2487–2495
Kirschman E (1997) I love a cop: What police families need to know. Guilford, New York
Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams J (2001) Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine 16:606–613
Langhinrichsen-Rohling J, Snarr JD, Slep AM, Heyman RE, Foran HM (2011) Risk for suicidal ideation in the U.S. Air Force: an ecological perspective. J Consult Clin Psychol 79:600–612
Linley PA, Andrew L, Joseph S (2008) Confirmatory factor analysis of the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory. Journal of Loss and Trauma 12:321–322
Loo R (2003) A meta-analysis of police suicide rates: findings and issues. Suicide Life Threat Behav 33:313–325
Madonna JM, Kelly RE (2002) Treating police stress: The work and the words of peer counselors. Thomas, Springfield
Marzuk PM, Nock MK, Leon AC, Portera L, Tardiff K (2002) Suicide among New York City police officers. Am J Psychiatry 159:2069–2071
McCoy SP, Aamodt MG (2010) A comparison of law enforcement divorce rates with those of other occupations. J Police Crim Psychol 25:1–16
Miller L (2005) Police officer suicide: cause, prevention, and practical intervention strategies. Int J Emerg Ment Health 7:101–114
Mohandie K, Hatcher C (1999) Suicide and violence risk in law enforcement: practical guidelines for risk assessment, presentation, and intervention. Behav Sci Law 17:357–376
Paton D, Violanti JM, Burke K, Gehrke A (2009) Traumatic stress in police officers: A career-length assessment from recruitment to retirement. Thomas, Springfield
Paykel ES, Myers JK, Lindenthal JJ, Tanner J (1974) Suicidal ideation feelings in the general population: a prevalence study. Br J Psychiatry 124:460–469
Perrin MA, DiGrande L, Wheeler K, Thorpe L, Farfel M, Brackbill R (2007) Differences in PTSD prevalence and associated risk factors among World Trade Center disaster rescue and recovery workers. Am J Psychiatry 164:1385–1394
Piccinelli M, Tessari E, Bortolomasi M, Piasere O, Semenzin M, Garzott N (1997) Efficacy of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test as a screening tool for hazardous alcohol intake and related disorders in primary care: a validation study. Br Med J 314:420–424
Pienaar J, Rothmann S, Van De Vijver F (2007) Occupational stress, personality, traits, coping strategies, and suicide ideation in the South African police service. Crim Justice Behav 34:246–258
Renberg ES (2001) Self reported life-weariness, death-wishes, suicidal ideation, suicidal plans and suicide attempts in general population surveys in the north of Sweden 1986 and 1996. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 36:429–436
Rothbaum BO, Foa EB (1996) Cognitive-behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. In: van Der Kolk B, McFarlane A, Weisaeth L (eds) Traumatic Stress. Guilford Press, New York, pp 491–509
Rutter M (2007) Psychopathological development across adolescence. J Youth Adolesc 36:101–110
Saunders JB, Aasland OG, Babor TF, De La Fuents JR, Grant M (1993) Development of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption-II. Alcohol 88:791–804
Schmidtke A, Fricke S, Lester D (1999) Suicide among German federal and state police officers. Psychol Rep 84:157–166
Shane JM (2010) Organizational stressors and police performance. J Crim Justice 38:807–818. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.05.008
Sheikh AI, Marotta SA (2005) A cross-validation study of the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory. Meas Eval Couns Dev 38:66–77
Sokero TP, Melartin TK, Rytsala HJ, Leskela HS, Isometsa ET (2003) Suicidal ideation and attempts among psychiatric patients with major depressive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 64:1094–1100
Tarrier N, Gregg L (2004) Suicide risk in civilian PTSD patients: predictors of suicidal ideation, planning, and attempts. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 39:655–661
Tedeschi RG, Calhoun LG (1996) The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory. Measuring the positive legacy of growth. J Trauma Stress 9:455–471
Territo L, Vetter HJ (1981) Stress and police personnel. Allyn & Bacon, Boston
Thoresen S, Mehlum L (2008) Traumatic stress and suicidal ideation in Norwegian male peacekeepers. J Nerv Ment Dis 196:814–821
U.S. Department of Justice (2010) Local Police Departments, 2007 (BJS publication No. NCJ 231174). Washington, DC; Author
Violanti JM (1981) Police stress and coping: An organizational analysis. UMI Dissertation Publishing, Ann Arbor
Violanti JM (2004) Predictors of police suicide ideation. Suicide Life Threat Behav 34:277–283
Violanti JM (2010) Police suicide: a national comparison with fire-fighter and military personnel. Polic Int J Police Strateg Manag 33:270–286
Violanti JM, Vena JA, Petralia S (1998) Mortality of a police cohort: 1950-1990. Am J Ind Med 33:366–373
Violanti JM, Fekedulegn D, Charles LE, Andrew ME, Hartley TA, Mnatsakanova A (2009) Suicide in police work: exploring potential contributing influences. Am J Crim Justice 34:41–53
Wang Z, Inslicht SS, Metzler TJ, Henn-Haase C, McCaslin S, Tong H (2010) A prospective study of predictors of depression symptoms in police. Psychiatr Res 175:211–216
Watson D, Goldney R, Fisher L, Merritt M (2001) The measurement of suicidal ideation. Crisis J Crisis Interv Suicide Prev 22:12–14
Weathers F, Litz B, Huska J, Keane T (1994) PTSD checklist- specific version. National Center for PTSD, Boston
Weiss DS, Brunet A, Best SR, Metzler TJ, Liberman A, Pole N (2010) Frequency and severity approaches to indexing exposure to trauma: the Critical Incident History Questionnaire for police officers. J Trauma Stress 23:734–743. doi:10.1002/jts.20576
Wenzel T, Rushiti F, Aghani F, Diaconu G, Maxhuni B, Zitterl W (2009) Suicidal ideation, posttraumatic stress and suicide statistics in Kosovo. An analysis five years after the war. Torture 19:238–247
Wilcox HC, Arria AM, Caldeira KM, Vincent KB, Pinchevsky GM, O’Grady KE (2010) Prevalence and predictors of persistent suicide ideation, plans, and attempts during college. J Affect Disord 127:287–294
Wilkins KC, Lang AJ, Norman SB (2011) Synthesis of the psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist (PCL) military, civilian, and specific versions. Depression Anxiety 28:595–606
Wittkampf KA, Naeije L, Schene AH, Huyser J, Van Wert HC (2007) Diagnostic accuracy of the mood module of the Patient Health Questionnaire: a systematic review. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 29:388–395
Yu X, Lau J, Zhang J, Winnie M, Choi KC, Lui W (2010) Posttraumatic growth and reduced suicidal ideation among adolescents at month 1 after the Sichuan earthquake. J Affect Disord 123:327–331
Zakir G, Murat D (2011) Police job stress and stress reduction/coping programs: the effect on the relationship with spouses. Turk J Police Stud 13:19–38
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chopko, B.A., Palmieri, P.A. & Facemire, V.C. Prevalence and Predictors of Suicidal Ideation Among U.S. Law Enforcement Officers. J Police Crim Psych 29, 1–9 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-013-9116-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-013-9116-z