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Promoting Volunteerism: Effects of Self-Efficacy, Advertisement-Induced Emotional Arousal, Perceived Costs of Volunteering, and Message Framing

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Abstract

This paper examines the extent to which communication strategies may influence willingness to volunteer. Research on persuasive advertising and the “arousal: cost-reward” model serve as theoretical foundations. The results of two experiments indicate that advertisement-induced (ad-induced) emotional arousal, message framing, and manipulations of self-efficacy perceptions can impact willingness to volunteer. Analysis detected a significant interaction between perceived self-efficacy and message framing. In the low (high) self-efficacy condition gain frames (loss frames) were more persuasive. When gender-related differences were considered, analysis revealed that ad-induced emotional arousal and manipulations of self-efficacy had their impact solely on men’s willingness to volunteer. Based on the results of the empirical analyses, implications for management and starting points for future research are presented.

Résumé

Cet article analyse dans quelle mesure les stratégies de communication ont une influence sur la volonté de se porter bénévole. La recherche sur la publicité à vocation persuasive et le “arousal: cost-reward” model servent de fondations théoriques. Les résultats de deux expériences montrent que l’éveil émotionnel induit par la publicité, la structure du message et les manipulations des perceptions d’efficacité, peuvent avoir un impact sur la volonté de se porter bénévole. L’analyse a permis de révéler une interaction significative entre la connaissance de sa propre efficacité et la structure du message. Dans le cas de la connaissance de sa propre efficacité (importante), les structures de gain étaient plus convaincantes. Lorsque les différences de genre étaient considérées, l’analyse a révélé que l’éveil émotionnel induit par la publicité et les manipulations de la connaissance de sa propre efficacité n’avaient un impact que sur la volonté des hommes à se porter bénévole. Des recherches à venir sont présentées, en se basant sur les résultats des analyses empiriques, les implications de la gestion et les points de départ.

Zusammenfassung

Dieser Beitrag untersucht, inwieweit Kommunikationsstrategien die Bereitschaft zur Übernahme ehrenamtlicher Tätigkeiten beeinflussen. Studien zu persuasiver Werbung und dem “Arousal: Cost-Reward” Modell bilden die theoretischen Grundlagen. Die Ergebnisse zweier Experimente zeigen, dass sich die durch Werbung hervorgerufene emotionale Erregung, das Message Framing und die Manipulation der Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung auf die Bereitschaft zur Übernahme ehrenamtlicher Tätigkeiten auswirken können. Eine Analyse ergab, dass eine signifikante Interaktion zwischen der Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung und dem Message Framing besteht. Bei niedriger (hoher) Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung war eine Gewinnrahmung (Verlustrahmung) überzeugender. Ein geschlechtsspezifischer Vergleich zeigte, dass sich die durch Werbung hervorgerufene emotionale Erregung und die Manipulation der Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung lediglich bei Männern auf die Bereitschaft zur Ausführung ehrenamtlicher Tätigkeiten auswirkte. Aufbauend auf den Ergebnissen der empirischen Analysen werden Empfehlungen für die Unternehmenspraxis sowie Ansatzpunkte für zukünftige Forschungsstudien präsentiert.

Resumen

Este trabajo analiza el grado de influencia que las estrategias de comunicación tienen en la disponibilidad para ser voluntario. Como base teórica del estudio se utilizó, por una parte, las investigaciones en publicidad persuasiva y, por otra, el “arousal: cost-reward” model. El resultado de dos experimentos alemanes indica que un despertar de conciencia emocional por medio de la publicidad (anuncios), el contexto de los mensajes y la manipulación de las percepciones sobre la propia utilidad pueden influir considerablemente en la intención de ser voluntario. El estudio detectó una relación significativa entre la propia utilidad percibida y el contexto del mensaje. En condiciones de baja (alta) propia utilidad, los marcos de ganancia (de pérdida) eran más persuasivos. En cuanto a las diferencias relacionadas con el sexo, el estudio reveló que un despertar de conciencia emocional por medio de anuncios y la manipulación de la propia utilidad solo tenía influencia en el deseo de los hombres para prestarse voluntarios. En función de los estudios empíricos, se presentaron consecuencias de gestión y puntos de partida para las investigaciones futuras.

摘要

这篇报告对沟通策略能在多大程度上影响志愿者的意愿进行了评估。对说服性广告和“唤起:成本-酬赏”模式的研究成为理论基础。两项德国实验的结果表明广告诱导情绪激励,消息框架,和感知自我效能可影响志愿者的意愿。分析发现被感知的自我效能和消息框架之间一个重要的相互作用。在低(高)自我感知环境中增益框架(损失框架)更有说服力。在考虑了相关性别差异,分析指出广告诱导情绪激励和感知自我效能都影响了人们对于志愿服务的意愿。根据经验分析的结果,提供了管理含义和未来研究的起点

ملخص

هذا البحث يختبر مدى تأثير إستراتيجيات الإتصال على الإستعداد للتطوع. البحث عن نموذج الإعلان المقنع و " الحوافز : تكلفه – مكافأه "يعزز أسس النظريه . نتائج تجربتان ألمانيتان تشير إلى أن الإعلان الذي يحث على إثاره العاطفه ٬ صياغه الرساله ٬ ومناوره إدراك الفعاليه الذاتيه ممكن أن يؤثر على الإستعداد للتطوع . التحليل يكشف التفاعل بين إدراك الفعاليه الذاتيه و صياغه الرساله . في حاله إنخفاض (إرتفاع) الفاعليه الذاتيه كسب أنماط (فقد أنماط) كان أكثر إقناعا˝. عندما تم الأخذ في الإعتبار الفروق بين الجنسين ٬ التحليل يكشف أن الإعلان والحث على إثاره العاطفه ومناوره الفعاليه الذاتيه يؤثرون فقط على إستعداد الرجال على التطوع . بناءا? على التحليل التجريبي ٬ تضمين الإداره و نقط البدايه سيتم تقديمهما في البحث المقبل .

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Notes

  1. For figures on other European countries see European Volunteer Centre (undated).

  2. This is a widespread argument against volunteering (Callow 2004, p. 269)—but there is little research to actually support this counter-argument.

  3. See Weisbrod (1975, p. 179) for a discussion on the substitutability of public and private goods.

  4. The Galatea effect is a phenomenon of self-fulfilling prophecies. It is assumed that high self-expectations regarding the performance of specific tasks alone lead to high performance in coping with the corresponding task (McNatt and Judge 2004). In this spirit, one can assume that pronounced self-efficacy perceptions result in a distinct willingness to perform specific behaviors.

  5. According to a report of the Corporation for National and Community Service (2006) more women than men volunteer in the United States. Contrary to this, more German men than women are volunteers (Gensicke et al. 2006). Likewise, Wymer and Samu (2002) show that men may have a higher willingness to volunteer.

  6. Having considered different forms of behavior and different measurement approaches, Sheppard et al. (1988) find an average correlation of .53 between intentions and behavior in a meta-analysis.

  7. Perceived self-efficacy was measured on a 5-point rating scale with a single-item measure (“I can help children learn reading by participating in the above described voluntary coaching program!”).

  8. The test persons were asked, if the print ad explicitly stresses the positive consequences of volunteering. Thus, it was assumed that message framing is a bipolar, one-dimensional construct.

  9. Within the context of an additional 2 (“Gender”) * 2 (“Message framing“) factorial design merely a significant main effect of subjects’ gender was confirmed.

  10. It is not sure whether such a ceiling effect has occurred. Because the mean value of willingness to volunteer only amounts to about 3.0 on a 5-point rating scale, the existence of a ceiling effect appears to be rather implausible.

  11. Additionally, another 2 (“Gender”) * 2 (“Perceived costs of volunteer”) factorial ANOVA was conducted. Within the scope of this analysis, gender was the only significant main effect detected.

  12. According to Eden and Kinnar (1991) an ad-induced enhancement of self-efficacy perceptions in excess of actual individual self-efficacy cannot be ethically defended.

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Correspondence to Jörg Lindenmeier.

Appendices

Appendix A

Question items, mean willingness to volunteer, and Cronbach’s alpha

 

Experiment 1

Experiment 2

Alpha if item is deleted

Cronbach’s alpha (mean value)

Alpha if item is deleted

Cronbach’s alpha (mean value)

I will volunteer as a reading and writing coach!

(No, definitely not! = 1; Yes, definitely! = 5)

.81

 

.82

 

Volunteering as a reading and writing coach is ...

(... not interesting for me! = 1; ... interesting for me! = 5)

.82

.87

(2.71)

.83

.91

(2.64)

I will try to volunteer as a reading and writing coach!

(No, definitely not! = 1; Yes, definitely! = 5)

.81

 

.81

 

Appendix B

Factorial design, mean willingness to volunteer, and distribution of test persons across experimental conditions—experiment 1

  

Factor 1: perceived self-efficacy

Low self-efficacy

High self-efficacy

Factor 1: message framing

Gain frame

3.07

(1.18)

n = 33

2.69

(.92)

n = 32

Loss frame

2.32

(.85)

n = 34

2.91

(.94)

n = 32

  1. Note: standard deviations are shown in parentheses

Appendix C

Factorial design, mean willingness to volunteer, and distribution of test persons across experimental conditions—experiment 2

  

Factor 2: costs of volunteering

Low costs (1 h per week)

High costs (3 h per week)

Factor 1: ad-induced arousal

High arousal

(ad including crying children and emotional slogan)

2.82

(1.11)

n = 30

2.97

(.91)

n = 33

Low arousal

(ad including stylized reader and non-emotional slogan)

2.60

(1.13)

n = 34

2.15

(.96)

n = 34

  1. Note: standard deviations are shown in parentheses

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Lindenmeier, J. Promoting Volunteerism: Effects of Self-Efficacy, Advertisement-Induced Emotional Arousal, Perceived Costs of Volunteering, and Message Framing. Voluntas 19, 43–65 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-008-9054-z

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