Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A classmate in distress: schoolchildren as bystanders and their reasons for how they act

  • Published:
Social Psychology of Education Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Research has shown that bystanders more often fail to or are slower to help a victim in emergency when there are other bystanders than when there are not. The study presented in this paper is a qualitative case study with a focus on students’ own reasons why they do not help a classmate in emergency when there are other children witnessing the emergency situation in the real-life classroom case studied. Grounded theory methods were used to analyse the data. The individual conversations with the students indicated a variety of definitions of the specific distress situation when they recalled and talked about the classroom incident. During the process of the analysis seven concepts of definitions associated with passive or non-intervention bystander behaviour were constructed and grounded in the empirical material: trivialisation, dissociation, embarrassment association, busy working priority, compliance with a competitive norm, audience modelling, and responsibility transfer. Relations between these concepts of definitions were also analysed. However, this study is a first step and a first report from an ongoing study about school children as helper and bystander.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aspin D. (2000). A clarification of some key terms in values discussions. In: Leicester M., Modgil C., Modgil S. (eds), Moral education and pluralism: education, culture and values (Vol 4). London, Falmer Press, pp. 16–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Arsenio W., Lover A. (1995). Children’s conceptions of sociomoral affect: Happy victimizers, mixed emotions, and other expectancies. In: Killen M., Hart D. (eds), Morality in everyday life. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp. 87–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura A. (2002). Selective moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal of Moral Education 31(2): 101–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Batson C.D., Ahmad N., Stocks E.L. (2004). Benefits and liabilities of empathy-induced altruism. In: Miller A.G. (eds), The social psychology of good and evil. New York, The Guilford Press, pp. 359–385

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister R.F., Chesner S.P., Senders P.S., Tice D.M. (1988). Who’s in charge here? Group leaders do lend help in emergencies. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 14(1): 17–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz M.W. (1998). The education of the complete moral person. Retrieved: October 26, 2004, from: http://tigger.uic.edu/∼lnucci/MoralEd/articles/berkowitzed.html

  • Berkowitz M.W., Grych J.H. (2000). Early character development and education. Early Education and Development 11(1): 55–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bierhoff H.-W. (2002). Prosocial Behaviour. Hove, Psychology Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Blatt M.M., Kohlberg L. (1975). The effects of classroom moral discussion upon children’s level of moral judgment. Journal of Moral Education 4(2): 129–161

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumer H. (1969). Symbolic interactionism: Perspective and method. Berkeley, University of California Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Caplan M.Z., Hay D.F. (1989). Preschoolers’ responses to peers’ distress and beliefs about bystanders intervention. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 30(2): 231–242

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charon J.M. (2001). Symbolic interactionism: An introduction, an interpretation, an integration (7th edn.). NJ, Prentice Hall

  • Clark R.D., Word L.E. (1972). Why don’t bystander help? Because of ambiguity?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 24(3): 392–400

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark R.D., Word L.E. (1974). Where is the apathetic bystander? Situational characteristics of the emergency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29(3): 279–287

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corsaro W.A. (1997). The sociology of childhood. Thousand Oaks, Pine Forge Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Craig W.M., Pepler D.J. (1997). Observations of bullying and victimization in the school yard. Canadian Journal of Social Psychology 13(2): 41–60

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Craig W.M., Pepler D.J., Atlas R. (2000). Observations of bullying in the playground and in the classroom. School Psychology International 21(1): 22–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cramer R.E., McMaster M.R., Bartell P.A., Dragna M. (1988). Subject competence and minimization of the bystander effect. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 18(13): 1133–1148

    Google Scholar 

  • Crick N.R., Dodge K.A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin 115(1): 74–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darley J.M., Latiné B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 8(4): 377–383

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darley J.M., Teger A.I., Lewis L.D. (1973). Do groups always inhibit individuals’ responses to potential emergencies?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 26(3): 395–399

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dodge K.A., Rabiner D.L. (2004). Returning to roots: On social information processing and moral development. Child Development 75(4): 1003–1008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dovidio J.F., Piliavin J.A., Gaertner S.L., Schroeder D.A., & Clark R.D. (1991). The arousal: Cost-reward model and the process of intervention: A review of the evidence. In M.S. Clark (Ed.), Prosocial behavior (Review of Personality and Social Psychology, No. 12). Newbury Park: Sage Publications, pp. 843–853

  • Eisenberg N., Mussen P.H. (1997). The roots of prosocial behavior in children. Cambridge, Cambridge Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg N., Fabes R.A. (1998). Prosocial development. In: Damon W., Eisenberg N. (eds), Handbook of child psychology, Vol 3: Social, emotional and personality development (5th edn). New York, Wiley, pp. 701–778

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg N., Spinrad T.L., Sadovsky A. (2006). Empathy-related responding in children. In: Killen M, Smetana J.G. (eds), Handbook of moral development. NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 517–549

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg N., Valiente C., Champion C. (2004). Empathy-related responing: Moral, social, and socialization correlates. In: Miller A.G. (eds), The social psychology of good and evil. New York, The Guilford Press, pp. 386–414

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer P., Greitemeyer T., Pollozek F., Frey D. (2006). The unresponsive bystander: Are bystanders more responsive in dangerous emergencies?. European Journal of Social Psychology 36(2): 267–278

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaertner S.L. (1975). The role of racial attitudes in helping behavior. The Journal of Social Psychology 97, 95–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaertner S.L., Dovidio J.F. (1977). The subtlety of white racism, arousal, and helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35(10): 691–707

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glaser B.G., Strauss A.L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. New York, Aldine de Gruyter

    Google Scholar 

  • Harada J. (1985). Bystander intervention: The effect of ambiguity of the helping situation and the interpersonal relationship between bystanders. Japanese Psychological Research 27(4): 177–184

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris V.A., Robinson C.E. (1973). Bystander intervention: Group size and victim status. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 2(1): 8–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison J.A., Wells R.B. (1991). Bystander effects on male helping behavior: Social comparison and diffusion of responsibility. Representative Research in Social Psychology 19(1): 53–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman M.L. (1987). The contribution of empathy to justice and moral judgment. In: Eisenberg N., Strayer J. (eds), Empathy and its development. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp. 47–80

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman M.L. (2000). Empathy and moral development. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogg M.A., Vaughan G.M. (2005). Social psychology: An introduction (4th edn). London, Prentice Hall

    Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz I.A. (1971). The effect of group norms on bystander intervention. The Journal of Social Psychology 83, 265–273

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janis I.L., Mann L. (1982). Defensive avoidance among policy makers. In: Brigham J.C., Wrightsman L.S. (eds), Contemporary issues in social psychology (4th edn). Monterey, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, pp. 246–256

    Google Scholar 

  • Latané B., Darley J.M. (1968). Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 10(3): 215–221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latané B., Darley J.M. (1970). The unresponsive bystander: Why doesn’t he help?. New York, Meredith Corporation

    Google Scholar 

  • Latané B., Nida S. (1981). Ten years of research on group size and helping. Psychological Bulletin 89(2): 308–324

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latené B., Rodin J. (1969). A lady in distress: Inhibiting effects of friends and strangers on bystander intervention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 5, 189–202

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lapsley D.K., Narvaez D. (2004). A social-cognitive approach to the moral personality. In: Lapsley D.K., Narvaez D. (eds), Moral development, self, and identity. New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 189–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandell N. (1991). The least-adult role in studying children. In: Waksler F. (eds), Studying the social worlds of children: Sociological readings. London, Falmer Press, pp. 38–59

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayall B. (2000). Conversations with children: Working with generational issues. In: Christensen P., James A. (eds), Research with children. London, Falmer Press, pp. 120–135

    Google Scholar 

  • Milgram S. (1974). Obedience to authority. London, Tavistock Publications

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller D.T., McFarland C. (1987). Pluralistic ignorance: When similarity is interpreted as dissimilarity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53(2): 298–305

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Narvaez D., Lapsley D.K. (2005). The psychological foundations of everyday morality and moral expertise. In: Lapsley D.K., Power F.C. (eds), Character psychology and character education. Notre Dame, University of Notre Dame press, pp. 140–165

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell P., Pepler D., Craig W. (1999). Peer involvement in bullying: Insights and challenges for intervention. Journal of Adolescence 22(4): 437–452

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rigby K., Johnson B. (2006). Expressed readiness of Australian schoolchildren to act as bystanders in support of children who are being bullied. Educational Psychology 26(3): 425–444

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross A.S. (1971). Effect of increased responsibility on bystander intervention: The presence of children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 19(3): 306–310

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rutkowski G.K., Gruder C.L., Romer D. (1983). Group cohesiveness, social norms, and bystander intervention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44(3): 545–552

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Säljö R. (2000). Lärande i praktiken: Ett sociokulturellt perspektiv (Learning in practice: A socio-cultural perspective). Stockholm, Prisma

    Google Scholar 

  • Salmivalli C. (1999). Participant role approach to school bullying: Implications for interventions. Journal of Adolescence 22(4): 453–459

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz S.H., Gottlieb A. (1976). Bystander reactions to a violent theft: Crime in Jerusalem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34(6): 1188–1199

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer D.R., Rogel M., Hendrick C. (1975). Intervention in the library: The effect of increased responsibility on bystanders’ willingness to prevent a theft. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 5(4): 303–319

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silverman D. (2001). Interpreting qualitative data (2nd edn). London, Sage Publications

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith R.E., Smythe L., Lien D. (1972). Inhibition of helping behavior by a similar or dissimilar nonreactive fellow bystander. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 23(3): 414–419

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon D., Watson M.S., Battistich V.A. (2001). Teaching and schooling effects on moral/prosocial development. In: Richardson V. (eds), Handbook of research on teaching (4th edn). Washington DC, American Educational Research Association, pp. 566–603

    Google Scholar 

  • Solomon L.Z., Solomon H., Stone R. (1978). Helping as a function of number of bystanders and ambiguity of emergency. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 4(2): 318–321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Staub E. (1970). A child in distress: The influence of age and number of witnesses on children’s attempts to help. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 14(2): 130–140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss A., Corbin J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research (2nd edn). Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications

    Google Scholar 

  • Tammivaara J., Enright D.S. (1986). On eliciting information: Dialogues with child informants. Anthropology & Education Quarterly 17(4): 218–238

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thalhofer N.N. (1971). Responsibility, reparation, and self-protection as reasons for three types of helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 19(2): 144–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberg R. (2006a). Det sociala livet i skolan: Socialpsykologi för lärare (The social life of school: Social psychology for teachers). Stockholm, Liber

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornberg R. (2006b). Hushing as a moral dilemma in the classroom. Journal of Moral Education 35(1): 89–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorne B. (1993). Genderplay. Buckingham, Open University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimbardo P.G. (2004). A situationist perspective on the psychology of evil: Understanding how good people are transformed into perpetrators. In: Miller A.G. (eds), The social psychology of good and evil. New York, The Guilford Press, pp. 21–50

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Behavioural Sciences and learning, Linköping University, Linköping, 58183, Sweden

    Robert Thornberg

Authors
  1. Robert Thornberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Thornberg, R. A classmate in distress: schoolchildren as bystanders and their reasons for how they act. Soc Psychol Educ 10, 5–28 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-006-9009-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-006-9009-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation