Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Gender Differences in Happiness and Life Satisfaction Among Adolescents in Hong Kong: Relationships and Self-Concept

  • Published:
Social Indicators Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study uses survey data from adolescents (N = 1,428) in Hong Kong to test the association of gender with happiness and life satisfaction through relationship style and self-concept. While self-esteem and purpose in life are associated with higher happiness and life satisfaction, having more close friends is related to higher happiness, but not necessarily life satisfaction. On the other hand, boys with higher academic achievement are happier, but not more satisfied; the opposite holds true for girls. Our results provide a much-needed investigation of the differential effect of gender on the subjective well-being of adolescents. Contributing to the theoretical debate about the concepts of subjective well-being, we argue that happiness and life satisfaction are empirically and conceptually distinct. Life satisfaction might be characterized by more profound enjoyment and achievement in life than happiness.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Wnuk et al. (2012, p. 465) make a similar distinction by defining happiness as a cognitive balance between one’s desire and passion for life as well as evaluation of life up to now, and evaluation of life in recent days. Meanwhile, life satisfaction consists of three perspectives: past, present, and future.

  2. Because composite measures are created for happiness, life satisfaction, self-esteem, and purpose in life, any one missing response for these concepts would result in an incomplete observation, dropping that participant from the analysis. However, the excluded observations were largely comparable with the included group. Most importantly for our causal arguments, the null hypothesis that the pattern of missingness is not associated with gender cannot be rejected at conventional levels of significance (p = 0.207). With the exception of age, which is expected, the same can be said for the main variables in this study (happiness, life satisfaction, self-esteem, purpose in life, academic achievement, no. of close friends, parents’ marital status, and siblings).

  3. It is acknowledged that the scale used here has been criticized in the literature for., among other things, its lack of conceptual clarity and structure (Cummins 2013; Kashdan 2004). According to Kashdan (2004), the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire mainly overlaps with the concepts of self-esteem and sense of purpose, which might be affecting the findings. Cummins (2013, p. 195) suggests that a single question can be a viable measurement of happiness. To ensure robustness, we have tried to use agreement to the statement “I am very happy” as an alternative measurement of happiness. Similar results can be obtained (results available upon request). Perhaps importantly, the effects of self-esteem and purpose in life did not change. Additionally, a considerable number of recent studies still utilize the scale to capture happiness under a range of contexts (e.g., Holder et al. 2010; Wei et al. 2011). While this is surely not a good reason to accept a flawed measure (Cummins 2013), unfortunately we have to leave the problem of measurements as an improvement in future studies. Further discussion regarding this point can be found in Sect. 4. We would like to thank an anonymous reviewer for highlighting this point.

  4. Results are available upon request. Unfortunately, there is no centralized public examination until the end of high school in Hong Kong. As respondents come from nine different schools, objective and comparable evaluations about their academic performance are not available. It is also noted that there is evidence that academic satisfaction is directly influenced by academic results (Xiao et al. 2009).

  5. Correlation figures by gender can be found in the online appendix, available at the journal website. The figures are very similar across the two gender groups for the main variables.

  6. Results from moderation tests with interaction terms between gender and other explanatory variables are consistent with those in the pooled models below and are largely significant. However, as the interpretation of the results are less straightforward, the results are presented in the online appendix.

References

  • Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(1), 1–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2009). The pursuit of meaningfulness in life. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed., pp. 608–618). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brody, L. R., & Hall, J. A. (2008). Gender and emotion in context. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (3rd ed., pp. 395–408). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bronk, K. C., Hill, P. L., Lapsley, D. K., Talib, T. L., & Finch, H. (2009). Purpose, hope, and life satisfaction in three age groups. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(6), 500–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buchmann, C., & DiPrete, T. A. (2006). The growing female advantage in college completion: The role of family background and academic achievement. American Sociological Review, 71, 515–541.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bui, H. N. (2009). Parent–child conflicts, school troubles, and differences in delinquency across immigration generations. Crime & Delinquency, 55, 412–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casas, F., Figuer, C., Gonzalez, M., Malo, S., Alsinet, C., & Subarroca, S. (2007). The well-being of 12- to 16-year old adolescents and their parents: Results from 1999 to 2003 Spanish samples. Social Indicators Research, 83, 87–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Census and Statistics Department. (2012). 2011 Population Census. Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Hong Kong: Census and Statistics Department.

  • Chang, L., Mcbride-Chang, C., Stewart, S. M., & Au, E. (2003). Life satisfaction, self-concept, and family relations in Chinese adolescents and children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27(2), 182–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, H., & Furnham, J. (2003). Personality, self-esteem, and demographic predictions of happiness and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(6), 921–942.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chui, W. H., & Chan, H. C. O. (2013). Psychological characteristics of male 14- to 20-year-olds on probation and in a residential home in Hong Kong. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 23, 41–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crumbaugh, J. (1968). Cross-validation of a purpose-in-life test based on Frankl’s concepts. Journal of Individual Psychology, 24, 74–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Hunter, J. (2003). Happiness in everyday life: The uses of experience sampling. Journal of Happiness Studies, 4, 185–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, R. A. (2013). Measuring happiness and subjective well-being. In S. David, I. Boniwell, & A. Conley Ayers (Eds.), Oxford handbook of happiness (pp. 185–200). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., & Clifton, D. (2002). Life satisfaction and religiosity in broad probability samples. Psychological Inquiry, 13, 206–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., & Diener, M. (1995). Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 653–663.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2009). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and life satisfaction. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed., pp. 187–194). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Scollon, C. N., & Lucas, R. E. (2004). The evolving concept of subjective well-being: The multifaceted nature of happiness. In P. T. Costa & I. C. Siegler (Eds.), Recent advances in psychology and aging (pp. 188–219). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Scollon, C. N., Oishi, S., Dzokoto, V., & Suh, E. (2000). Positivity and the construction of life satisfaction judgments: Global happiness is not the sum of its parts. Journal of Happiness Studies, 1, 159–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Very happy people. Psychological Science, 13, 80–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 276–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eckermann, L. (2000). Gendering indicators of health and well-being: Is quality of life gender neutral? Social Indicators Research, 52(1), 29–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feliciano, C. (2012). The female educational advantage among adolescent children of immigrants. Youth and Society, 44(3), 431–449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feliciano, C., & Rumbaut, R. G. (2005). Gendered paths: Educational and occupational expectations and outcomes among adult children of immigrants. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 28, 1087–1118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Froh, J. J., Yurkewicz, C., & Kashdan, T. B. (2009). Gratitude and subjective well-being in early adolescence: Examining gender differences. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 633–650.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldbeck, L., Schmitz, T. G., Besier, T., Herschbach, P., & Henrich, G. (2007). Life satisfaction decreases during adolescence. Quality of Life Research, 16, 969–979.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez, M., Figuer, C., Malo, S., & Casas, F. (2014). Personal well-being and interpersonal communication of 12–16 year-old girls and their own mothers: Gender and intergenerational issues. In E. Eckermann (Ed.), Gender, lifespan, and quality of life (pp. 7–24). Netherlands: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hartup, W. W. (1983). The peer system. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), Carmichael’s manual of child psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 275–386)., Socialization, personality, and social development New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hills, P., & Argyle, M. (2002). The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire: A compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 1073–1082.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holder, M. D., Coleman, B., & Wallace, J. M. (2010). Spirituality, religiousness, and happiness in children aged 8–12 years. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11, 131–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsieh, M.-J. (2012). The relationships among high performance human resource practices, employee’s well-being, attitudes, and behaviors (Unpublished Master's Thesis). Kaohsiung, Taiwan: Institute of Human Resource Management, National Sun Yat-sen University. (In Chinese)

  • Huebner, E. S., Suldo, S., Valois, R. F., Drane, J. W., & Zullig, K. (2004). Brief multidimensional students’ life satisfaction scale: Sex, race, and grade effects for a high school sample. Psychological Reports, 94, 351–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kashdan, T. B. (2004). The assessment of subjective well-being (issues raised by the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire). Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1225–1232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kitayama, S., & Markus, H. R. (2000). The pursuit of happiness and the realization of sympathy: Cultural patterns of self, social relations, and well-being. In E. Diener & E. Suh (Eds.), Subjective well-being across cultures (pp. 113–161). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ku, H.-B., Chan, K.-W., Chan, W.-L., & Lee, W.-Y. (2003) A research report on the life experiences of Pakistanis in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Centre for Policy Studies, Department of Applied Social Sciences, Hong Kong Polytechnic University and S.K.H. Lady MacLehose Centre.

  • Ku, H.-B., Chan, K.-W., & Sandhu, K. K. (2005). A research report in the education of South Asian ethnic minority groups in Hong Kong. Research Report Series No. 11, Centre for Social Policy Studies, Department of Applied Social Sciences, Hong Kong Polytechnic University and Unison Hong Kong.

  • Kwan, Y. K. (2010). Life satisfaction and self-assessed health among adolescents in Hong Kong. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11, 383–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kwan, V. S. Y., Bond, M. H., & Singelis, T. M. (1997). Pancultural explanations for life satisfaction: Adding relationship harmony to self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(5), 1038–1051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kwok, Y. Y., Chui, W. H., & Wong, L. P. (2013). Need satisfaction mechanism linking volunteer motivation and life satisfaction: A mediation study of volunteers subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research, 114, 1315–1329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000). The nature and function of self-esteem: Sociometer theory. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 32, pp. 1–62). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leung, J. P., & Leung, K. (1992). Life satisfaction, self-concept and relationship with parents in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 18, 345–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leung, J. P., & Zhang, L.-W. (2000). Modelling life satisfaction of Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24(1), 99–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez, N. (2003). Hopeful girls, troubled boys: Race and gender disparity in urban education. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131(6), 803–855.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAdams, D. P. (1996). Personality, modernity, and the storied self: A contemporary framework for studying persons. Psychological Inquiry, 7, 295–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKnight, P. E., & Kashdan, T. B. (2009). Purpose in life as a system that creates and sustains health and well-being: An integrative, testable theory. Review of General Psychology, 13(3), 242–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moksnes, U. K., & Espnes, G. A. (2013). Self-esteem and life satisfaction in adolescents—gender and age as potential moderators. Quality of Life Research, 22, 2921–2928.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oishi, S., Diener, E., Suh, E., & Lucas, R. E. (1999). Value as a moderator in subjective well-being. Journal of Personality, 67, 157–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, D. (2006). Quality of life: Concept, policy and practice. New York: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shek, D. T. L. (1988). Reliability and factorial structure of the Chinese version of the Purpose in Life Questionnaire. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44(3), 384–392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shek, D. T. L. (1993). The Chinese purpose-in-life test and psychological well-being in Chinese college students. International Forum for Logotherapy, 16(1), 35–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shek, D. T. L. (1997). The relation of family functioning to adolescent psychological well-being, school adjustment, and problem behavior. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 158, 467–479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shek, D. T. L. (1998). A longitudinal study of the relations between parent–adolescent conflict and adolescent psychological well-being. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 159, 53–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shek, D. T. L., Lee, B. M., Lee, T. Y., & Lam, C. M. (2006). Frequency, satisfaction and quality dimensions of perceived parent–adolescent communication among Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 18(2), 259–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sun, R. C. F., & Shek, D. T. L. (2010). Life satisfaction, positive youth development, and problem behaviour among Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Social Indicators Research, 95(3), 455–474.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thayer, R. E., Newman, R., & McClain, T. M. (1994). Self-regulation of mood: Strategies for changing a bad mood, raising energy, and reducing tension. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 910–925.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tkach, C., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2006). How do people pursue happiness? Relating personality, happiness-increasing strategies, and well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7, 183–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitterso, J. (2013). Functional wellbeing: Happiness as feelings, evaluations, and functioning. In S. David, I. Boniwell, & A. Conley Ayers (Eds.), Oxford handbook of happiness (pp. 227–244). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, A., & Melde, C. (2010). Latino and Asian students’ perceptions of the quality of their educators: The role of generational status and language proficiency. Youth and Society, 42(1), 3–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wei, M., Liao, K. Y.-H., Ku, T.-Y., & Shaffer, P. A. (2011). Attachment, self-compassion, empathy, and subjective well-being among college students and community adults. Journal of Personality, 79(1), 191–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wnuk, M., Marcinkowski, J. T., & Fobair, P. (2012). The relationship of purpose in life and hope in shaping happiness among patients with cancer in Poland. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 30(4), 461–483.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xiao, J. J., Tang, C., & Shim, S. (2009). Acting for happiness: Financial behavior and life satisfaction of college students. Social Indicators Research, 92, 53–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Applied Social Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR

    Wing Hong Chui

  2. Department of Politics and Public Administration, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR

    Mathew Y. H. Wong

Authors
  1. Wing Hong Chui
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mathew Y. H. Wong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Wing Hong Chui.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOC 109 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Chui, W.H., Wong, M.Y.H. Gender Differences in Happiness and Life Satisfaction Among Adolescents in Hong Kong: Relationships and Self-Concept. Soc Indic Res 125, 1035–1051 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-0867-z

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-0867-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation