Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Happiness and Childbearing Across Europe

  • Published:
Social Indicators Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Using happiness as a well-being measure and comparative data from the European social survey we focus in this paper on the link between happiness and childbearing across European countries. The analysis motivates from the recent lows in fertility in many European countries and that economic wellbeing measures are problematic when considering childbearing. We find significant country differences, though the direct association between happiness and childbearing is modest. However, partnership status plays an important role for both men and women. Working fathers are always happier, whereas working mothers are not, though mothers’ happiness tends to increase with household income.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Unfortunately, the ESS and the General Social Survey differ in their measure of individual happiness. Whereas the ESS uses a 10-point scale, happiness in the GSS is based on 3 values.

  2. In theory an integrated file of the 4 rounds could have been created. In practice, however, this would have caused some problems as some countries are included in all 4 rounds whereas others in only one or two. The result of this procedure would be an unbalanced dataset where some countries would be given a lot more weight than others.

  3. The 3rd round potentially contains 25 countries, but we excluded Estonia, Ukraine, Russia, Hungary and Romania since data on income was missing for these countries or was recorded in a different way compared to rest of the countries. We also excluded Cyprus since our analysis primarily focuses on the European context.

  4. The questionnaire refers to “biological” children only.

  5. Note that the sample is restricted to individuals aged 20–50, thus the average of this variable does not correspond to individuals’ completed fertility as many of the respondents are still young and in childbearing ages.

  6. Denmark is the reference category. Table 3 will include group country dummies rather than country dummies.

  7. Clearly, it would have been appropriate to control for the health status of the respondent since healthy individuals tend to be better off in many domains, including income levels and social status. However, we are not able to control for the health status since the ESS only provides a measure of subjective level of health, which one can argue is directly embedded into our dependent variable.

  8. As the Social Democratic group is the reference category, the coefficient of at least one child becomes the average effect of having a child in that group of countries. Including the interaction term one can observe the effect of having a child in another group of countries with respect to Social Democratic.

  9. To determine the “net” effect one subtracts the interaction coefficient from the average (i.e. the coefficient of at least one child) to get the association between happiness and having at least one child in a particular group of countries.

References

  • Aassve, A., Iacovou, M., & Mencarini, L. (2006). Youth poverty and transition to adulthood in Europe. Demographic Research, 15, 21–49. doi:10.4054/DemRes.2006.15.2.

  • Aassve, A., & Lappegård, T. (2009). Childcare cash benefits and fertility timing in Norway. European Journal of Population/Revue européenne de Démographie, 25(1), 67–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aassve, A., Mazzuco, S., & Mencarini, L. (2005). Childbearing and well-being: A comparative analysis of European welfare regimes. [Article]. Journal of European Social Policy, 15(4), 283–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alesina, A., Di Tella, R., & MacCulloch, R. (2004). Inequality and happiness: Are Europeans and Americans different? Journal of Public Economics, 88(9–10), 2009–2042.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Argyle, M. (1999). Causes and correlates of happiness. In D. E. Kahneman & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Billari, F. C. (2008). The happiness commonality: Fertility decisions in low-fertility settings. In UNECE (Ed.), How generations and gender shape demographic change (pp. 7–38). New York and Geneva: United Nations.

    Google Scholar 

  • Billari, F. C., & Kohler, H. P (2009). Fertility and happiness in the XXI century: Institutions, preferences, and their interactions. In IUSSP, Marrakesh, 27th September–2nd October, 2009.

  • Billari, F. C., Philipov, D., & Testa, M. R. (2009). Attitudes, norms and perceived behavioural control: Explaining fertility intentions in Bulgaria. European Journal of Population-Revue Europeenne De Demographie, 25(4), 439–465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchflower, D. G., & Oswald, A. J. (2004). Well-being over time in Britain and the USA. Journal of Public Economics, 88(7–8), 1359–1386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, A., Frijters, P., & Shields, M. A. (2006). Income and happiness: Evidence, explanations and economic implications. Paris: PSE (Ecole normale supérieure).

    Google Scholar 

  • Deaton, A. (2008). Income, aging, health and well-being around the World: Evidence from the Gallup World Poll. In D. A. Wise (Ed.), Research findings in the economics of aging (pp. 235–263).

  • Dex, S., & Joshi, H. (1999). Careers and motherhood: Policies for compatibility. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 23, 641–659.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bullettin, 95(3), 542–575.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Easterlin, R. A. (1994). Explaining happiness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100(19), 11176–11183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Easterlin, R. A. (2001). Income and happiness: Towards a unified theory. The Economic Journal, 111(473), 465–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Easterlin, R. A. (2003). Explaining happiness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100(19), 11176–11183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Easterlin, R. (2005). Is there an “iron law for happiness”. IEPR Working Paper, Department of Economics, University of Southern California.

  • Esping-Andersen, G. (1999). Social foundations of post industrial economies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrera, M. (1996). The ‘Southern Model’ of welfare in social Europe. Journal of European Social Policy, 6(1), 17–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gauthier, A. H. (1999). The state and the family: A comparative analysis of family policies in industrialized countries. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joshi, H. (1998). The opportunity costs of childbearing: More than mothers’ business. Journal of Population Economics, 11(1), 161–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohler, H. P., Behrman, J. R., & Skytthe, A. (2005). Partner + children = happiness? The effects of partnerships and fertility on well-being. Population and development review, 31(3), 407–445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lappegård, T., & Rønsen, M. (2005). The multifaceted impact of education on entry into motherhood. European Journal of Population/Revue européenne de Démographie, 21(1), 31–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Margolis, R., & Myrskyla, M. (2010). A global perspective on happiness and fertility? Population and development review (forthcoming).

  • Martin, S. P. (2000). Diverging fertility among US women who delay childbearing past age 30. Demography, 37(4), 523–533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald, P. (2000). Gender equity in theories of fertility transition. Population and development review, 26(3), 427–439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oswald, A. J. (1997). Happiness and economic performance. The Economic Journal, 107(445), 1815–1831.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pudney, S., & Conti, G. (2011). Survey design and the analysis of satisfaction. Review of Economics and Statistics (forthcoming).

  • Saraceno, C., & Keck, W. (2008). The institutional framework of intergenerational family obligations in Europe: A conceptual and methodological overview. Multilinks project, WP1. Berlin: WZB Social Science Research Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stutzer, A., & Frey, B. S. (2006). Does marriage make people happy, or do happy people get married? Journal of Socio-Economics, 35(2), 326–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trifiletti, R. (1999). Southern European welfare regimes and the worsening position of women. Journal of European Social Policy, 9(1), 49–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Umberson, D., Pudrovska, T., & Reczek, C. (2010). Parenthood, childlessness and well-being: A life course perspective. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 612–629.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Bavel, J. (2010). Choice of study discipline and the postponement of motherhood in Europe: The impact of expected earnings, gender composition, and family attitudes. Demography, 47(2), 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van de Kaa, D. J. (1987). Europe’s second demographic transition. Population Bulletin, 42(1), 1–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van de Kaa, D. J. (1994). The second demographic transition revisited: Theories and expectations. In G. B. et al. (Ed.), Population and family in the low countries 1993: Late fertility and other current issues (Vol. 30, pp. 81–126). Swets and Zeitlinger, Berwyn, Pennsylvania/Amsterdam: NIDI/GBGS.

  • van de Kaa, D. J. (2002). The idea of a second demographic transition in industrialized countries. Paper presented at the Sixth Welfare Policy Seminar of the National Institute of Population and Social Security, Tokyo, 29 January.

  • Veenhoven, R. (1993). Happiness in nations, subjective appreciation of life in 56 nations 1946–1992. Rotterdam: Erasmus University of Rotterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Veenhoven, R. (2000). Freedom and happiness, a comparative study in 46 nations in the early 1990’s. In E. Diener (Ed.), Culture and subjective wellbeing. Cambridge: MIT press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wooldridge, J. M. (2002). Econometric analysis and cross section and panel data. Cambridge: MIT press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmermann, A. C., & Easterlin, R. A. (2006). Happily ever after? Cohabitation, marriage, divorce, and happiness in Germany. Population and Development Review, 32(3), 511–528.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Andrew Oswald, Andrew Clark, Cristina Ruggeri and Jane Klobas for very useful comments to this analysis. Financial support from the ERC, Starting Grant No. Stg 201194 (Consequences of Demographic Change), is gratefully acknowledged.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Carlo F. Dondena Centre for Research on Social Dynamics, Università Bocconi, via Guglielmo Röntgen 1, 20136, Milan, Italy

    Arnstein Aassve

  2. Department of Social Policy, The London School of Economics and Political Science, Houghton Street, London, WC2A 2AE, UK

    Alice Goisis

  3. Graduate Group in Demography, Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA

    Maria Sironi

Authors
  1. Arnstein Aassve
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Alice Goisis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Maria Sironi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Maria Sironi.

Appendix

Appendix

1.1 Appendix 1

AT:

Austria

BE:

Belgium

BG:

Bulgaria

CH:

Switzerland

DE:

Germany

DK:

Denmark

ES:

Spain

FI:

Finland

FR:

France

IE:

Ireland

LV:

Latvia

NL:

Netherlands

NO:

Norway

PL:

Poland

PT:

Portugal

SE:

Sweden

SI:

Slovenia

SK:

Slovakia

UK:

United Kingdom

1.2 Appendix 2

See Table 6 below.

Table 6 Differences in the level of happiness across Europe
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Aassve, A., Goisis, A. & Sironi, M. Happiness and Childbearing Across Europe. Soc Indic Res 108, 65–86 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9866-x

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9866-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation