Abstract
Girls and women continue to be underrepresented in STEM fields (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics), and this underrepresentation has been partly attributed to gendered socialization processes early in life. One common feature of girls’ developmental years is the experience of gender discrimination, yet relatively few studies have examined how girls’ own experiences with gender discrimination may shape their connectedness to school and STEM. Using data from a cross-sectional study of ethnically and socioeconomically diverse adolescent girls (N = 295; Mage = 15.1, SD = 1.1; 54% White, 21% African American, 13% Latinx), we examined the unique and interactive effects of girls’ subjective experiences with gender discrimination and implicit gender-science stereotypes on school connectedness and STEM orientation. Participants completed a survey on their experiences with gender discrimination, school connectedness, math and science achievement motivations, and the gender-science implicit association test. Results demonstrated that girls who experienced more gender discrimination reported lower levels of school connectedness. Gender discrimination also negatively predicted math achievement motivations for girls who more strongly endorsed implicit gender-science stereotypes (i.e., science associated with men and liberal arts associated with women). The theoretical and practical significance of these findings are discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anderman, E. M., Eccles, J. S., Yoon, K. S., Roeser, R., Wigfield, A., & Blumenfeld, P. (2001). Learning to value mathematics and reading: Relations to mastery and performance-oriented instructional practices. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26(1), 76–95. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1043
Andrews, N. C., Santos, C. E., Cook, R. E., & Martin, C. L. (2018). Gender discrimination hinders other-gender friendship formation in diverse youth. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 59(5), 16–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2018.02.006
Ayres, M. M., Friedman, C. K., & Leaper, C. (2009). Individual and situational factors related to young women’s likelihood of confronting sexism in their everyday lives. Sex Roles, 61(7–8), 449–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9635-3
Baysu, G., Phalet, K., & Brown, R. (2014). Relative group size and minority school success: The role of intergroup friendship and discrimination experiences. British Journal of Social Psychology, 53(2), 328–349. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12035
Benner, A. (2017). The toll of racial/ethnic discrimination on adolescents’ adjustment. Child Development Perspectives, 11(4), 251–256. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12241
Benner, A. D., Wang, Y., Shen, Y., Boyle, A. E., Polk, R., & Cheng, Y. P. (2018). Racial/ethnic discrimination and well-being during adolescence: A meta-analytic review. American Psychologist, 73(7), 855–883. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000204.supp
Bian, L., Leslie, S. J., & Cimpian, A. (2017). Gender stereotypes about intellectual ability emerge early and influence children’s interests. Science, 355(6323), 389–391. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aah6524
Brown, C. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2005). Children’s perceptions of discrimination: A developmental model. Child Development, 76(3), 533–553. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00862.x
Brown, C. S., & Leaper, C. (2010). Latina and European American girls’ experiences with academic sexism and their self-concepts in mathematics and science during adolescence. Sex Roles, 63(11–12), 860–870. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9856-5
Carli, L. L., Alawa, L., Lee, Y., Zhao, B., & Kim, E. (2016). Stereotypes about gender and science: Women ≠ scientists. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(2), 244–260. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684315622645
Cassidy, C., O’Connor, R. C., Howe, C., & Warden, D. (2004). Perceived discrimination and psychological distress: the role of personal and ethnic self-esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(3), 329–339. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.51.3.329
Cheryan, S., Ziegler, S. A., Montoya, A. K., & Jiang, L. (2017). Why are some STEM fields more gender balanced than others? Psychological Bulletin, 143(1), 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000052
Cimpian, J. R., Kim, T. H., & McDermott, Z. T. (2020). Understanding persistent gender gaps in STEM. Science, 368(6497), 1317–1319. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aba7377
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2013). Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203774441
Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Identity politics, intersectionality, and violence against women. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299. https://doi.org/10.2307/1229039
Cvencek, D., Meltzoff, A. N., & Greenwald, A. G. (2011). Math–gender stereotypes in elementary school children. Child Development, 82(3), 766–779. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01529.x
DeLay, D., Martin, C. L., Cook, R. E., & Hanish, L. D. (2018). The influence of peers during adolescence: Does homophobic name calling by peers change gender identity? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(3), 636–649. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0749-6
DeNavas-Walt, C., Proctor, B. D., & Smith, J. C. (2013). Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2012. Current Population Reports P60-245. US Census Bureau. https://doi.org/10.1037/e561322006-001
Dotterer, A. M., & Lowe, K. (2011). Classroom context, school engagement, and academic achievement in early adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(12), 1649–1660. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9647-5
Douglass, S., Mirpuri, S., English, D., & Yip, T. (2016). “They were just making jokes”: Ethnic/racial teasing and discrimination among adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22(1), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000041
Eccles, J., Wigfield, A., Harold, R. D., & Blumenfeld, P. (1993). Age and gender differences in children’s self-and task perceptions during elementary school. Child Development, 64(3), 830–847. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131221
Fabes, R. A., Martin, C. L., & Hanish, L. D. (2019). Gender integration and the promotion of inclusive classroom climates. Educational Psychologist, 54(4), 271-285. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2019.1631826
Fenzel, L. M. (1989). Role strain in early adolescence: A model for investigating school transition stress. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 9(1–2), 13–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431689091003
Furlong, M. J., O’brennan, L. M., & You, S. (2011). Psychometric properties of the Add Health School Connectedness Scale for 18 sociocultural groups. Psychology in the Schools, 48(10), 986–997. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20609
Gillen-O’Neel, C. G. O., & Fuligni, A. (2013). A longitudinal study of school belonging and academic motivation across high school. Child Development, 84(2), 678–692. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01862.x
Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the implicit association test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 197–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197
Grollman, E. A. (2012). Multiple forms of perceived discrimination and health among adolescents and young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 53(2), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146512444289
Gruber, J. E., & Fineran, S. (2008). Comparing the impact of bullying and sexual harassment victimization on the mental and physical health of adolescents. Sex Roles, 59(1–2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9431-5
Ha, T., & Rogers, A. A. (2015). Navigating the School System [Unpublished instrument]. Arizona State University.
Hilliard, L. J., & Liben, L. S. (2010). Differing levels of gender salience in preschool classrooms: Effects on children’s gender attitudes and intergroup bias. Child Development, 81(6), 1787–1798. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01510.x
Kaiser, C. R., & Major, B. (2006). A social psychological perspective on perceiving and reporting discrimination. Law & Social Inquiry, 31(4), 801–830. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-4469.2006.00036.x
Kiefer, A. K., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2007a). Implicit stereotypes and women’s math performance: How implicit gender-math stereotypes influence women’s susceptibility to stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(5), 825–832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.08.004
Kiefer, A. K., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2007b). Implicit stereotypes, gender identification, and math-related outcomes: A prospective study of female college students. Psychological Science, 18(1), 13–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01841.x
Klonoff, E., & Landrine, H. (1995). The Schedule Of Sexist Events: A Measure of Lifetime and Recent Sexist Discrimination in Women's Lives. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19(4), 439–472. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1995.tb00086.x
Konishi, C., Hymel, S., Zumbo, B. D., & Li, Z. (2010). Do school bullying and student—teacher relationships matter for academic achievement? A multilevel analysis. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 25(1), 19–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573509357550
Lane, K. A., Goh, J. X., & Driver-Linn, E. (2012). Implicit science stereotypes mediate the relationship between gender and academic participation. Sex Roles, 66(3–4), 220–234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0036-z
Lauermann, F., Tsai, Y. M., & Eccles, J. S. (2017). Math-related career aspirations and choices within Eccles et al.’s expectancy–value theory of achievement-related behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 53(8), 1540–1559. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000367
Leaper, C., & Brown, C. S. (2008). Perceived experiences with sexism among adolescent girls. Child Development, 79(3), 685–704. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01151.x
Leaper, C., & Brown, C. S. (2018). Sexism in childhood and adolescence: Recent trends and advances in research. Child Development Perspectives, 12(1), 10–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12247
Leaper, C., Brown, C. S., & Ayres, M. M. (2013). Adolescent girls’ cognitive appraisals of coping responses to sexual harassment. Psychology in the Schools, 50(10), 969–986. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21727
Leaper, C., Farkas, T., & Brown, C. S. (2012). Adolescent girls’ experiences and gender-related beliefs in relation to their motivation in math/science and English. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(3), 268–282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9693-z
Leaper, C., & Starr, C. R. (2019). Helping and hindering undergraduate women’s STEM motivation: Experiences with STEM encouragement, STEM-related gender bias, and sexual harassment. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 43(2), 165–183. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684318806302
Liben, L. S., & Bigler, R. (2002). The developmental course of gender differentiation: Conceptualizing, measuring, and evaluating constructs and pathways. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67(Serial No. 269). https://www.jstor.org/stable/3181530
Martin, C. L., & Halverson, C. F., Jr. (1981). A schematic processing model of sex typing and stereotyping in children. Child Development, 52(4), 1119–1134. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129498
McKellar, S. E., Marchand, A. D., Diemer, M. A., Malanchuk, O., & Eccles, J. S. (2019). Threats and supports to female students’ math beliefs and achievement. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 29(2), 449–465. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12384
McKenney, S. J., & Bigler, R. S. (2016). High heels, low grades: Internalized sexualization and academic orientation among adolescent girls. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26(1), 30–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12179
McNeely, C. A., Nonnemaker, J. M., & Blum, R. W. (2002). Promoting school connectedness: Evidence from the national longitudinal study of adolescent health. Journal of School Health, 72(4), 138–146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2002.tb06533.x
Mundy, L. K., Canterford, L., Kosola, S., Degenhardt, L., Allen, N. B., & Patton, G. C. (2017). Peer victimization and academic performance in primary school children. Academic Pediatrics, 17(8), 830–836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2017.06.012
Nakamoto, J., & Schwartz, D. (2010). Is peer victimization associated with academic achievement? A Meta-Analytic Review. Social Development, 19(2), 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2009.00539.x
National Center for Education Statistics. (2017). Digest of Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/2017menu_tables.asp
Nosek, B. A. (2007). Implicit–explicit relations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(2), 65–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00477.x
Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002). Math= male, me= female, therefore math≠ me. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(1), 44–59. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.44
O’Brien, L. T., Blodorn, A., Adams, G., Garcia, D. M., & Hammer, E. (2015). Ethnic variation in gender-STEM stereotypes and STEM participation: An intersectional approach. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(2), 169–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037944
Perez, T., Dai, T., Kaplan, A., Cromley, J. G., Brooks, W. D., White, A. C., Mara, K. R., & Balsai, M. J. (2019). Interrelations among expectancies, task values, and perceived costs in undergraduate biology achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 72(1), 26–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2019.04.001
Pittman, L. D., & Richmond, A. (2007). Academic and psychological functioning in late adolescence: The importance of school belonging. The Journal of Experimental Education, 75(4), 270–290. https://doi.org/10.3200/jexe.75.4.270-292
Robinson-Cimpian, J. P., Lubienski, S. T., Ganley, C. M., & Copur-Gencturk, Y. (2014). Teachers’ perceptions of students’ mathematics proficiency may exacerbate early gender gaps in achievement. Developmental Psychology, 50(4), 1262–1281. https://doi.org/10.1037/e578192014-126
Robnett, R. D. (2016). Gender Bias in STEM Fields: Variation in prevalence and links to STEM self-concept. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(1), 65–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684315596162
Santos, C. E., & Toomey, R. B. (2018). Integrating an intersectionality lens in theory and research in developmental science. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 161, 7–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20245
Spencer, M. B., Dupree, D., & Hartmann, T. (1997). A phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST): A self-organization perspective in context. Development and Psychopathology, 9(4), 817–833. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579497001454
Starr, C. R., & Simpkins, S. D. (2021). High school students’ math and science gender stereotypes: relations with their STEM outcomes and socializers’ stereotypes. Social Psychology of Education, 24(1), 273–298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-021-09611-4
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797
Torsheim, T., Wold, B., & Samdal, O. (2000). The teacher and classmate support scale: Factor structure, test-retest reliability and validity in samples of 13-and 15-year-old adolescents. School Psychology International, 21(2), 195–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034300212006
Torsheim, T., Samdal, O., Rasmussen, M., Freeman, J., Griebler, R., & Dür, W. (2012). Cross-national measurement invariance of the teacher and classmate support scale. Social Indicators Research, 105(1), 145–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-010-9770-9
Wilson, D., Jones, D., Bocell, F., Crawford, J., Kim, M. J., Veilleux, N., ... Plett, M. (2015). Belonging and academic engagement among undergraduate STEM students: A multi-institutional study. Research in Higher Education, 56(7), 750–776. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-015-9367-x
Wong, T. K., Parent, A. M., & Konishi, C. (2019). Feeling connected: The roles of student-teacher relationships and sense of school belonging on future orientation. International Journal of Educational Research, 94(1), 150–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2019.01.008
Acknowledgements
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Research involving human and animal participants
This research involved human subjects. All participants provided informed consent to participate in this research. All procedures were approved by the PI’s University IRB.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rogers, A.A., Boyack, M., Cook, R.E. et al. School Connectedness and STEM Orientation in Adolescent Girls: The Role of Perceived Gender Discrimination and Implicit Gender-Science Stereotypes. Sex Roles 85, 405–421 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-021-01224-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-021-01224-7