Abstract
In South Korea, strong beliefs about traditional gender roles in accordance with Confucian and patriarchic atmosphere still strongly influence daily life and the career development process. Cultural and contextual factors impact the development of gender role socialization, which influences an individual’s career decision self-efficacy (CDSE) and adaptability to manage the challenging career decision-making process. In our study, we recruited 291 South Korean undergraduate students (138 women, 153 men) and investigated how an implicit gender-career stereotyping impacts career adaptability via CDSE and whether there is a gender difference on the direct and indirect effects of implicit gender-career stereotyping on career adaptability. The Implicit Association Test (IAT) was implemented to measure implicit gender-career stereotyping. By testing a moderated mediation model, we found a mediated effect of CDSE in the link between implicit gender-career stereotyping and career adaptability in the female students. Moreover, the direct relationship between implicit gender-career stereotyping and CDSE was significant only for female students. Given the findings, practitioners and educators who work with South Korean women need to explore the degree of clients’ traditional gender role stereotyping and provide tailored interventions to increase their level of career adaptability by minimizing the negative impacts of gender role stereotyping and by increasing CDSE.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahn, S. S., Kim, I. S., Kang, H. R., & Park, K. H. (2016). Development of a production guideline for broadcasting programs aimed towards spreading of egalitarian culture. Seoul: Korean Women’s Development Institute. Retrieved from https://www.nkis.re.kr:4445/subject_view1.do?otpId=KWDI00049411&otpSeq=0&eoSeq=0.
Akhter, M. (April, 2018). Members build confidence, portfolio of experience that help them stand out to employers. Retrieved from https://www.ucdavis.edu/majors/blog/exploring-options/female-majority-clubs.
Ashmore, R. A., Del Boca, F. K., & Bilder, S. M. (1995). Construction and validation of the Gender Attitude Inventory, a structured inventory to assess multiple dimensions of gender attitudes. Sex Roles, 32, 753–785. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01560188.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446221129.n6.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.35-1826.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1.
Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., & Pastorelli, C. (2001). Self-efficacy beliefs as shapers of children's aspirations and career trajectories. Child Development, 72(1), 187–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00273.
Banse, R., Seise, J., & Zerbes, N. (2001). Implicit attitudes towards homosexuality: Reliability, validity, and controllability of the IAT. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie, 48(2), 145–160. https://doi.org/10.1026//0949-3946.48.2.145.
Barreto, M., & Ellemers, N. (2005). The burden of benevolent sexism: How it contributes to the maintenance of gender inequalities. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35(5), 633–642. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.270.
Bearman, S. B., Korobov, M., & Thorne, A. (2009). The fabric of internalized sexism. Journal of Integrated Social Sciences, 1, 10–47. Retrieved from http://www.jiss.org/documents/volume_1/issue_1/JISS_2009_1-1_10-47_Fabric_of_Internalized_Sexism.pdf.
Betz, N. E. (1993). Toward the integration of multicultural and career psychology. The Career Development Quarterly, 42(1), 53–55. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.1993.tb00245.x.
Betz, N. E., Klein, K. L., & Taylor, K. M. (1996). Evaluation of a short-form of career decision making self-efficacy scale. Journal of Career Assessment, 4, 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/106907279600400103.
Broverman, I. K., Vogel, S. R., Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F. E., & Rosenkrantz, P. S. (1972). Sex-role stereotypes: A current appraisal. Journal of Social Issues, 28(2), 59–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1972.tb00018.x.
Chang, T. F. H. (2003). A social psychological model of women’s gender-typed occupational mobility. Career Development International, 8, 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430310459496.
Chiesa, R., Massei, F., & Guglielmi, D. (2016). Career decision-making self-efficacy change in Italian high school students. Journal of Counseling & Development, 94(2), 210–224. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12077.
Cho, S.-Y., & Min, K.-S. (2011). Differences and relationship of career identity, career decision-making self-efficacy, and career adaptability of college students. The Journal of Career Education Research, 24, 59–76. http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/ArticleDetail/NODE02409887#.
Chung, Y. B. (2002). Career decision-making self-efficacy and career commitment: Gender and ethnic differences among college students. Journal of Career Development, 28, 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1177/089484530202800404.
Clement, S. (1987). The self-efficacy expectations and occupational preferences of females andmales. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 60(3), 257–265. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1987.tb00258.x.
Correll, S. J. (2004). Constraints into preferences; gender, status, and emerging career aspiration. American Sociological Review, 69, 93–113. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240406900106.
Creed, P. A., Patton, W., & Prideaux, L.-A. (2007). Predicting change over time in career planning and career exploration for high school students. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 377–392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.04.003.
De Lemus, S., Moya, M., Lupiáñez, J., & Bukowski, M. (2014). Men in the office, women in the kitchen? Contextual dependency of gender stereotype activation in Spanish women. Sex Roles, 70(11–12), 468–478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0328-6.
Eddleston, K. A., Veiga, J. F., & Powell, G. N. (2006). Explaining sex differences in managerial career satisfier preferences: The role of gender self-schema. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 437–445. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.2.437.
Enders, C. K. (2001). A primer on maximum likelihood algorithms available for use with missing data. Structural Equation Modeling, 8, 128–141. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem0801_7.
Evans, C. D., & Diekman, A. B. (2009). On motivated role selection: Gender beliefs, distant goals, and career interest. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 235–249. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01493.x.
Gilbert, L. A. (1993). Two careers/one family. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Ginevra, M. C., & Nota, L. (2017). Occupational gender stereotypes and problem-solving in Italian adolescents. British Journal of Guidance and Counseling, 45(3), 312–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2015.106384.
Gottfredson, L. S. (1996). Gottfredson's theory of circumscription and compromise. In D. Brown & L. Brooks (Eds.), Career choice and development (pp. 179–232). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Simon, W. E. (1971). Career salience, work values, and vocational indecision. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 10, 104–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(77)90047-1.
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4–27. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295x.102.1.4.
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.74.6.1464.
Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the implicit association test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 197–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197.
Guan, P., Capezio, A., Restubog, S. L. D., Read, S., Lajom, J. A. L., & Li, M. (2016). The role of traditionality in the relationships among parental support, career decision-making self-efficacy, and career adaptability. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 94, 114–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2016.02.018.
Guay, F. (2005). Motivations underlying career decision-making activities: The career decision-making autonomy scale (CDMAS). Journal of Career Assessment, 13, 77–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072704270297.
Gushue, G. V. (2006). The relationship of ethnic identity, career decision-making self-efficacy and outcome expectations among Latino/a high school students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68, 85–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2005.03.002.
Hackett, G., & Betz, N. E. (1981). A self-efficacy approach to the career development of women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 18(3), 326–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(81)90019-1.
Hackett, G., & Betz, N. E. (1989). An exploration of the mathematics self-efficacy/mathematics performance correspondence. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 20, 261–273. https://doi.org/10.2307/749515.
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1111/jedm.12050.
Holland, J. L. (1985). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice.
Hou, C., Wu, L., & Liu, Z. (2014). Effect of proactive personality and decision-making self-efficacy on career adaptability among Chinese graduates. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 42(6), 903–912. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2014.42.6.903.
Huffpost. (2016, November). An epic battle between feminism and deep-seated misogyny is under way in South Korea.. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/feminism-misogyny-south-korea_us_5818dc1be4b0f96eba963f6c.
Jin, M-S. (2018, May). Whose side is gender equity center in College? Hankyoreh. Retrieved from http://h21.hani.co.kr/arti/special/special_general/45336.html.
Jodry, J., & Armstrong, K. (2010). The personal is political: Using feminist theory as a model of career and employment counseling. Retrieved from https://counselingoutfitters.com/vistas/vistas10/Article_06.pdf.
Joo, Y. J., Go, K. Y., & Jung, Y. (2015). The effect of positive affect, social support, career decision-making self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, and career preparation behavior on career satisfaction of university students. The Journal of Career Education Research, 28(3), 65–83. https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART002037049.
Keifer, A. K., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2005). Implicit stereotypes and women’s math performance: How implicit gender-math stereotypes influence women’s susceptibility to stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 825–832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.08.004.
Kim, D. I. (2001). Sociology of sex. Seoul, South Korea: Moonumsa Publisher.
Kim, J.-S. (2007). How are occupational aspirations formed among female college students? Focusing on recognitions of the gender division of labor in the home and labor market and coping strategies. Korean Journal of Sociology of Education, 17, 77–108. Retrieved from https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART001046638.
Kim, K.-O., & Ha, J.-Y. (2007). Portrayal of women’s image in the prime-time TV commercials on three Korean TV networks. Korean Journal of Journalism and Communication Studies, 51(2), 453–478. Retrieved from https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART001249328.
Kim, M. Y., Lee, J. S., & Lee, J. H. (2015). Relationship among types of decision making, career decision-making self efficacy, career motivation, and career indecision of college students. The Korean Journal of Youth Counseling, 23(2), 1–19. Retrieved from https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART002053441.
Kray, L. J., Howland, L. H., Russell, A. G., & Jackman, L. M. (2017). The effects of implicit gender role theories on gender system justification: Fixed beliefs strengthen masculinity to preserve the status quo. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112, 98–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000124.
Lee, S. G., & Baek, S. G. (2013). Gender representations in TV advertisements and their ideological implications a semiotic and discourse analysis on “electronic rice cooker” ads. The Korean Journal of Advertising and Public Relations, 15(4), 197–237. Retrieved from https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART001817219.
Lee, K. H., & Lee, H. J. (2000). The effect of career self-efficacy in predicting the level of career attitude maturity of college students. The Korean Journal of Counseling and Psychotherapy, 12(1), 127–136. http://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=1755414.
Lee, S. H., & Lee, E. J. (2009). The influence of gender role identity, and gender role attitude on career decision-making self-efficacy and career maturity. The Korean Journal of Counseling, 10(4), 2137–2151. https://doi.org/10.15703/kjc.10.4.200912.2137.
Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45(1), 79–122. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1994.1027.
Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (2000). Contextual supports and barriers to career choice: A social cognitive analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(1), 36–49. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0167.47.1.36.
Maume Jr., D. (1999). Occupational segregation and the career mobility of white men and women. Social Forces, 77, 1433–1459. https://doi.org/10.2307/3005882.
McWhirter, E. H. (1997). Perceived barriers to education and career: Ethnic and gender differences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50(1), 124–140. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1995.1536.
McWhirter, E. H., Hackett, G., & Bandalos, D. L. (1998). A causal model of the educational plans and career expectations of Mexican American high school girls. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45(2), 166–181.
Meade, A. W. (2009). FreeIAT: An open-source program to administer the implicit association test. Applied Psychological Measurement, 33, 643. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146621608327803.
Moya, M., Expósito, F., & Ruiz, J. (2000). Close relationships, gender, and career salience. Sex Roles, 42, 825–846. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1007094232453.
Na, S. W., & Ahn, K. Y. (2018, April). Men-women hiring ratio 4:1…. Gender discrimination hiring in Hana Bank. Kukminilbo. Retrieved from http://news.kmib.co.kr/article/view.asp?arcid=0923927177.
Nam, S. K., Yang, E., Lee, S. M., Lee, S. H., & Seol, H. (2010). A psychometric evaluation of the career decision self-efficacy scale with Korean students: A Rasch model approach. Journal of Career Development, 38(2), 147–166. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845310371374.
Nevill, D. D., & Super, D. (1988). Career maturity and commitment to work in university students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 31, 139–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(88)90011-5.
Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Sriram, N., Lindner, N. M., Devos, T., Ayala, A., … Greenwald, A. G. (2009). National differences in gender–science stereotypes predict national sex differences in science and math achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(26), 10593–10597. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0809921106.
O'Brien, K. M., & Fassinger, R. E. (1993). A causal model of the career orientation and career choice of adolescent women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 40(4), 456–469. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0167.40.4.456.
Park, G. (2016). Married women’ use of discretion time and time management. Seoul: Seoul Foundation of Women & Family. Retrieved from https://www.seoulwomen.or.kr/c2/sub1_1_view.jsp?regNo=1482195991110.
Park, Y.-H. (2017). The effect of career decision making self-efficacy and career maturity on university students’ job seeking anxiety. The Journal of Career Education Research, 30(2), 41–61. http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/ArticleDetail/NODE07226666.
Porfeli, E. J., Lee, B., Vondracek, F. W., & Weigold, I. K. (2011). A multi-dimensional measure of vocational identity status. Journal of Adolescence, 34(5), 853–871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.02.001.
Rudman, L. A., & Phelan, J. E. (2010). The effect of priming gender roles on women’s implicit gender beliefs and career aspiration. Social Psychology, 41, 192–202. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000027.
Savickas, M. L. (2002). Career construction: A developmental theory of vocational behavior. In D. Brown & Associates (Eds.), Career choice and development (4th ed., pp. 149–205). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Retrieved from http://www.borbelytiborbors.extra.hu/ZSKF/CareerDevelopment.pdf#page=170.
Savickas, M. L. (2013). Career construction theory and practice. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research to work (2nd ed., pp. 42–70). Hoboken: Wiley.
Savickas, M. L., & Porfeli, E. J. (2012). Career adapt-abilities scale: Construction, reliability, and measurement equivalence across 13 countries. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(3), 661–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2012.01.011.
Shin, Y.-J. (2013). Exploration of the relationship among calling, career decision-making self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and career adaptability. Korean Journal of Counseling, 14, 209–226. https://doi.org/10.15703/kjc.14.1.201302.209.
Su, R., Rounds, J., & Armstrong, P. I. (2009). Men and things, women and people: A meta-analysis of sex differences in interests. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 859–884. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017364.
Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(2), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.68.2.199.
Tak, J. (1995). Occupational sex stereotypes among Korean college students: Differences based on sex, sex-role type, and culture. Korean Journal of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 8(1), 161–174. Retrieved from http://dl.nanet.go.kr/SearchDetailView.do?cn=KINX2003103354&sysid=uci.
Tak, J. (2012). Career adapt-abilities scale—Korea form: Psychometric properties and construct validity. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(3), 712–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2012.01.008.
Taylor, K. M., & Betz, N. E. (1983). Applications of self-efficacy theory to the understanding and treatment of career indecision. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 22(1), 63–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(83)90006-4.
The Diplomat. (2016, August). The struggles of South Korea’s working women: How structural barriers impede South Korean women from joining the workforce. Retrieved from http://thediplomat.com/2016/08/the-struggles-of-south-koreas-working-women.
Thoits, P. A. (1991). On merging identity theory and stress research. Social Psychology Quarterly, 54, 101–112. https://doi.org/10.2307/2786929.
Weitzman, L. M., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1993). Employed mothers: Labor force profiles and diverse lifestyles. In J. Frankel (Ed.), The employed mothers and the family context. New York: Springer.
White, M. J., & White, G. B. (2006). Implicit and explicit occupational gender stereotypes. Sex Roles, 55(3–4), 259–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9078-z.
World Economic Forum. (2015). The global gender gap report 2015. In World Economic Forum (Ed.), The global gender gap report (pp. 1–391). Geneva, Switzerland: World Economic Forum. Retrieved from http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2015/economies/.
Yang, N. M. (2008). The mediating effect of career self-efficacy on the relationship of sex-role stereotype and career aspiration in middle school students. The Korean Journal of Counseling, 9(2), 537–550. https://doi.org/10.15703/kjc.9.2.200806.537.
Yon, K. J., Choi, W., & Goh, M. (2012). Career maturity growth curve and sex-role stereotypes of Korea adolescents. Journal of Career Development, 40(3), 203–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845312445515.
Yonhapnews. (2016, March). 74% of companies in South Korea prefer to hire male rather than female. Retrieved from http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2016/03/15/0200000000AKR20160315057900003.HTML?input=1195m.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1016.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Research Involving Human Participants and/or Animals
The authors verify that this manuscript describes a study wherein humans were subjects, the treatment of human subjects was in accordance with established ethical guidelines and appropriate institutional approval. The research that this manuscript reports was approved by the University of Seoul IRB where the first author, Yun-Jeong Shin, is affiliated.
Informed Consent
The authors verify that every participant for a study that this manuscript describes provided written informed consent. In prior to give informed consent, all participants were provided with detailed information of study. Written information about the study includes research purpose and procedures, potential risks and benefits of participation, confidentiality, and compensation and highlighted voluntary participation.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Shin, YJ., Lee, E.S. & Seo, Y. Does Traditional Stereotyping of Career as Male Affect College Women’s, but Not College Men’s, Career Decision Self-Efficacy and Ultimately Their Career Adaptability?. Sex Roles 81, 74–86 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0976-7
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0976-7