Abstract
Gender socialization influences children at early ages, shaping their developing identities. The toys provided by parents deliver some of the earliest gender-based messages by encouraging children to engage in activities associated with, for example, dolls and trucks. In the current study, we measured the influence of parental socialization by assessing 5- and 12 ½-month-old infants’ exposure to dolls and trucks and by experimentally manipulating parents’ encouragement to play with these toys. We found that infants displayed gender-typical toy preferences at 12 ½, but not 5 months, a pattern characteristic of previous studies. However, brief encouragement by a parent to play with toys from each category was ineffective in altering infants’ preferences. Rather, the types of toys present in the home predicted preferences, suggesting that at-home exposure to toys may be influential in the development of toy preferences. These findings reveal that socialization processes may indeed play a role in the formation of early gender-typical toy preferences and highlight the importance of equal toy exposure during infancy to ensure optimal development.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alexander, G. M. (2003). An evolutionary perspective of sex-typed toy preferences: Pink, blue, and the brain. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 32(1), 7–14. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021833110722.
Alexander, G. M. (2006). Associations among gender-linked toy preferences, spatial ability, and digit ratio: Evidence from eye-tracking analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35(6), 669–709. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-006-9038-2.
Alexander, G. M., & Hines, M. (2002). Sex differences in response to children’s toys in nonhuman primates (Ceropithecus aethiops sabaeus). Evolution and Human Behavior, 23, 467–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(02)00107-1.
Alexander, G. M., & Saenz, J. (2012). Early androgens, activity levels and toy choices of children in the second year of life. Hormones and Behavior, 62(4), 500–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.08.008.
Alexander, G. M., Wilcox, T., & Woods, R. (2009). Sex differences in infants’ visual interest in toys. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38(3), 427–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9430-1.
Aslin, R. N. (2007). What’s in a look? Developmental Science, 10, 48–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00563.x.
Barry III, H., & Harper, A. S. (1995). Increased choice of female phonetic attributes in first names. Sex Roles, 32, 809–819. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2000.87.1.48.
Beall, A. E. (1993). A social constructionist view of gender. In A. E. Beall & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The psychology of gender (pp. 127–147). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Berenbaum, S. A., & Hines, M. (1992). Early androgens are related to childhood sex-typed toy preferences. Psychological Science, 3(3), 203–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00028.x.
Berthier, N. E., & Keen, R. (2006). Development of reaching in infancy. Experimental Brain Research, 169(4), 507–518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-005-0169-9.
Bhana, D., & Mayeza, E. (2016). We don’t play with gays, they’re not real boys…they can’t fight: Hegemonic masculinity (homophobic) violence in the primary years of schooling. International Journal of Educational Development, 51, 36–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2016.08.002.
Birke, L. I., & Vines, G. (1987, January). Beyond nature versus nurture: process and biology in the development of gender. Women’s Studies International Forum, 10(6), 555–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-5395(87)90070-7.
Blair, S. L. (1992). The sex-typing of children’s household labor: Parental influences on daughters’ and sons’ house work. Youth and Society, 24, 530–543. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X92024002004.
Blakemore, J. E. O. (2003). Children’s beliefs about violating gender norms: Boys shouldn’t look like girls, and girls shouldn’t act like boys. Sex Roles, 48, 411–419.
Blakemore, J. E. O., Berenbaum, S., & Liben, L. (2009). Gender development. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Blakemore, J. E. O., & Centers, R. E. (2005). Characteristics of boys’ and girls’ toys. Sex Roles, 53(9–10), 619–633. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-7729-0.
Burnham, D. K., & Harris, M. B. (1992). Effects of real gender and labeled gender on adults' perceptions of infants. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 153(2), 165–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.1992.10753711.
Butler, J. (1993). Bodies that matter: On the discursive limits of “sex.” New York, NY: Routledge.
Bushnell, E. W. (1985). The decline of visually guided reaching during infancy. Infant Behavior and Development, 8(2), 139–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-6383(85)80002-3.
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676–713. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.676.
Caldera, Y. M., Huston, A. C., & O'Brien, M. (1989). Social interactions and play patterns of parents and toddlers with feminine, masculine, and neutral toys. Child Development, 60(1), 70–76. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131072.
Campbell, A., Shirley, L., Heywood, C., & Crook, C. (2000). Infants’ visual preference for sex-congruent babies, children, toys and activities: A longitudinal study. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18, 479–498. https://doi.org/10.1348/026151000165814.
Cherney, I. D., Kelly-Vance, L., Glover, K. G., Ruane, A., & Ryalls, B. O. (2003). The effects of stereotyped toys and gender on play assessment in children aged 18-47 months. Educational Psychology, 23, 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410303222.
Civan, A., Teller, D. Y., & Palmer, J. (2005). Relations among spontaneous preferences, familiarized preferences and novelty effects: Measurements with forced-choice techniques. Infancy, 7, 111–142.
Cohen-Bendahan, C. C., van de Beek, C., & Berenbaum, S. A. (2005). Prenatal sex hormone effects on child and adult sex-typed behavior: Methods and findings. Neuroscience and Biobehavior Review, 29, 353–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.11.004.
Collaer, M. L., & Hines, M. (1995). Human behavioral sex differences: A role for gonadal hormones during early development? Psychological Bulletin, 118, 55–107. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.118.1.55.
Coleman, J. M., & Hong, Y. Y. (2008). Beyond nature and nurture: The influence of lay gender theories on self-stereotyping. Self and Identity, 7(1), 34–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860600980185.
Columbo, J. (1997). Individual differences in infant cognition: methods, measures, and models. In J. Dobbing (Ed.), Developing brain and behavior: The role of lipids in infant formulas (pp. 339–385). London: Academic Press.
Crawley, S., & Broad, K. L. (2008). The construction of sex and sexualities. In J. Holstein & J. Gubrium (Eds.), Handbook of constructionist research (pp. 545–566). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Dannemiller, J. L., & Stephens, B. R. (1988). A critical test of infant pattern preference models. Child Development, 59(1), 210–216. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130403.
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2013). The nature-nurture debates: 25 years of challenges in understanding the psychology of gender. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(3), 340–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613484767.
Endendijk, J. J., Groeneveld, M. G., van Berkel, S. R., Hallers-Haalboom, E. T., Mesman, J., & Bakersman-Kraneburg, M. J. (2013). Gender stereotypes in the family context: Mothers, fathers, and siblings. Sex Roles, 68, 577–590. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0265-4.
Escudero, P., Robbins, R. A., & Johnson, S. P. (2013). Sex-related preferences for real and doll faces versus real and toy objects in young infants and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 116(2), 367–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2013.07.001.
Fagan, J. F. (1970). Memory in the infant. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 9(2), 217–226.
Fagot, B. I. (1995). Psychosocial and cognitive determinants of early gender-role development. Annual Review of Sex Research, 6, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/10532528.1995.10559900.
Fagot, B. I., & Hagan, R. (1991). Observations of parent reactions to sex-stereotyped behaviors: Age and sex effects. Child Development, 62, 617–628. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131135.
Feinman, S., & Lewis, M. (1983). Social referencing at ten months: A second-order effect on infants' responses to strangers. Child Development, 54, 878–887.
Flom, R., & Johnson, S. (2010). The effects of adults’ affective expression and direction of visual gaze on 12-month-olds’ visual preferences following a 5 minute, 1-day or 1-month delay. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 29, 64–85.
Francis, B. (2010). Gender, toys, and learning. Oxford Review of Education, 36, 325–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305498100373227.
Gabbard, C., Caçola, P., & Rodrigues, L. P. (2008). A new inventory for assessing affordances in the home environment for motor development (AHEMD-SR). Early Childhood Education Journal, 36, 5–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-008-0235-6.
Goldberg, A. E., Kashy, D. A., & Smith, J. Z. (2012). Gender-typed play behavior in early childhood: Adopted children with lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents. Sex Roles, 67(9–10), 503–515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0198-3.
Gredebäck, G., Johnson, S., & von Hofsten, C. (2009). Eye tracking in infancy research. Developmental Neuropsychology, 35(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565640903325758.
Green, V. A., Bigler, R., & Catherwood, D. (2004). The variability and flexibility of gender-typed toy play: A close look at children’s behavioral responses to counterstereotypic models. Sex Roles, 51, 371–386.
Haight, W. L., Parke, R. D., & Black, J. E. (1997). Mother’s and fathers’ beliefs about and spontaneous participation in their toddlers’ pretend play. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 43, 271–290. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23092492.
Halim, M. L., & Ruble, D. (2010). Gender identity and stereotyping in early and middle childhood. In J. C. Chrisler & D. R. McCreary (Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology (pp. 495–525). New York, NY: Springer.
Halim, M., Ruble, D. N., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Zosuls, K. M., Lurve, L. E., & Greulich, F. K. (2014). Pink frilly dresses and the avoidance of all things “girly”: Children’s appearance rigidity and cognitive theories of gender development. Developmental Psychology, 50(4), 1091–1101. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034906.
Hassett, J. M., Siebert, E. R., & Wallen, K. (2008). Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy preferences parallel those of children. Hormones & Behavior, 54(3), 359–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.03.008.
Hare-Mustin, R. (1978). A feminist approach to family therapy. Family Process, 17(2), 181–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.1978.00181.x.
Hare-Mustin, R. (1987). The problem of gender in family therapy theory. Family Process, 26(1), 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.1987.00015.x.
Hines, M. (2004). Brain gender. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hines, M., Pasterski, V., Spencer, D., Neufeld, S., Patalay, P., Hindmarsh, P. C., ... Acerini, C. L. (2016). Prenatal androgen exposure alters girls' responses to information indicating gender-appropriate behaviour. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 371(1688), 20150125. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0125.
Hornik, R., Risenhoover, N., & Gunnar, M. (1987). The effects of maternal positive, neutral, and negative affective communications on infant responses to new toys. Child Development, 58, 937–944.
Hunter, M. A., & Ames, E. W. (1988). A multifactor model of infant preferences for novel and familiar stimuli. Advances in Infancy Research, 5, 69–95.
Hyde, J. S. (1990). Meta-analysis and the psychology of gender differences. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 16(1), 55–73.
Jacklin, C. N., DiPietro, J. A., & Maccoby, E. E. (1984). Sex-typing behavior and sex-typing pressure in child/parent interaction. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 13, 413–425. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01541427.
Jadva, V., Hines, M., & Golombok, S. (2010). Infants’ preferences for toys, colors, and shapes: Sex differences and similarities. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39(6), 1261–1273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-01-9618-z.
Jürgensen, M., Hiort, O., Holterhus, P.-M., & Thyen, U. (2007). Gender role behavior in children with XY karyotype and disorders of sex development. Hormones and Behavior, 51, 443–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.01.001.
Kane, E. W. (2006). “No way my boys are going to be like that!” Parents’ responses to children’s gender nonconformity. Gender & Society, 20(2), 149–176.
Karraker, K. H., Vogel, D. A., & Lake, M. A. (1995). Parents’ gender-stereotyped perceptions of newborn: The eye of the beholder revisited. Sex Roles, 33, 687–701. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01547725.
Kleiner, K. A., & Banks, M. S. (1987). Stimulus energy does not account for 2-month-olds' face preferences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 13(4), 594–600.
Kohlberg, L. A. (1966). A cognitive–developmental analysis of children’s sex role concepts and attitudes. In E. E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex differences (pp. 82–173). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Lamminmåki, A., Hines, M., Kuiri-Hänninen, T., Kilpeläinen, L., Dunkel, L., & Sankilampi, U. (2012). Testosterone measured in infancy predicts subsequent sex-typed behavior in boys and in girls. Hormones and Behavior, 61(4), 611–616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.02.013.
Langlois, J. H., & Downs, A. C. (1980). Mothers, fathers and peers as socialization agents of sex-typed play behaviors in young children. Child Development, 51, 1237–1247. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129566.
Leaper, C. (2000). The social construction and socialization of gender during development. In P. H. Miller & E. K. Scholnick (Eds.), Toward a feminist development psychology (pp. 127–152). New York, NY: Routledge.
Leinbach, M. D., & Fagot, B. I. (1993). Categorical habituation to male and female faces: Gender schematic processing in infancy. Infant Behavior and Development, 16(3), 317–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/0163-6383(93)80038-A.
Liben, L. S., & Signorella, M. L. (1980). Gender-related schemata and constructive memory in children. Child Development, 51, 11–18.
Lieberson, S., & Bell, E. O. (1992). Children’s first names: An empirical study of social taste. American Journal of Sociology, 98, 511–554.
Lindsey, E. W., & Mize, J. (2000). Parent-child physical and pretense play: Links to children’s social competence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 46, 565–591.
Lindsey, E. W., & Mize, J. (2001). Contextual differences in parent-child play: Implications for children’s gender role development. Sex Roles, 44, 155–176. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010950919451.
Lober, J. (1991). Dismantling Noah’s ark. In J. Lober & S. A. Farrell (Eds.), The social construction of gender (pp. 355–369). Thousand Oakes, CA: Sage Publications.
Lober, J. (1994). Paradoxes of gender. New Haven, CT: Yale University of Press.
Lytton, H., & Romney, D. M. (1991). Parent’s differential socialization of boys and girls: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 267–296. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.109.2.267.
Mahoney, A. R., & Knudson-Martin, C. (2009). The social context of gendered power. In C. Knudson-Martin & A. R. Mahoney (Eds.), Couples, gender, and power: Creating change in intimate relationships (pp. 17–29). New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.
Martin, C. L., Eisenbud, L., & Rose, H. (1995). Children's gender-based reasoning about toys. Child Development, 66(5), 1453–1471.
Martin, C. L., & Halverson, C. F. (1983). The effects of sex-typing schemas on young children’s memory. Child Development, 54, 563–574.
Martin, C. L., Ruble, D. N., & Szkrybalo, J. (2002). Cognitive theories of early gender development. Psychological Bulletin, 128(6), 903–933. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.6.903.
Martin, K. A. (2005). William wants a doll. Can he have one? Feminists, child care advisors, and gender-neutral child rearing. Gender & Society, 19(4), 456–479. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243204272968.
McDowell, T. (2015). Applying critical social theories to family therapy practice. New York, NY: Springer.
Meyer-Bahlburg, H. F., Baratz Dalke, K., Berenbaum, S. A., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Hines, M., & Schober, J. M. (2016). Gender assignment, reassignment and outcome in disorders of sex development: Update of the 2005 Consensus Conference. Hormone Research in Pædiatrics, 85(2), 112–118.
Nelson, A. (2005). Children's toy collections in Sweden: A less gender-typed country? Sex Roles, 52(1–2), 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-1196-5.
Okruhlik, K. (1998). Gender and the biological sciences. In M. Curd & J. A. Cover (Eds.), Philosophy of science: The central issues (pp. 192–208). New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company.
Oransky, M., & Marecek, J. (2009). “I'm not going to be a girl”: Masculinity and emotions in boys' friendships and peer groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 24(2), 218–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558408329951.
Pennell, G. E. (1994). Babes in Toyland: Learning an ideology of gender. Advances in Consumer Research, 21, 359–364.
Pomerleau, A., Bolduc, D., Malcuit, G., & Cossette, L. (1990). Pink or blue: Environmental gender stereotypes in the first two years of life. Sex Roles, 22(5–6), 359–367. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF0028839.
Quinn, P. C., Yahr, J., Kuhn, A., Slater, A. M., & Pascalis, O. (2002). Representation of the gender of human faces by infants: A preference for female. Perception, 31(9), 1109–1122. https://doi.org/10.1068/p3331.
Reynolds, G. D. (2015). Research report: Infant visual attention and object recognition. Behavioural Brain Research, 285, 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2015.01.015.
Rochat, P., & Goubet, N. (1995). Development of sitting and reaching in 5-to 6-month-old infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 18(1), 53–68.
Rubin, K. H., Provenzano, F. J., & Luria, Z. (1974). The eye of the beholder: Parent’s views on sex of newborns. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 44, 512–519. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1974.tb00905.x.
Serbin, L. A., Poulin-Dubois, D., & Eichstedt, J. A. (2002). Infants' responses to gender-inconsistent events. Infancy, 3, 531–542. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327078IN0304_07.
Servin, A., Bohlin, G., & Berlin, L. (1999). Sex differences in 1-, 3-, and 5-year-olds’ toy-choice in a structured play-session. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 40, 43–48. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9450.00096.
Servin, A., Nordenström, A., Larsson, A., & Bohlin, G. (2003). Prenatal androgens and gender-typed behavior: A study of girls with mild and severe forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Developmental Psychology, 39(3), 440–450. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.3.440.
Shakin, M., Shakin, D., & Sternglanz, S. H. (1985). Infant clothing: Sex labeling for strangers. Sex Roles, 12, 955–964. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00288097.
Slaby, R. G., & Frey, K. S. (1975). Development of gender constancy and selective attention to same-sex models. Child Development, 46, 849–856. https://doi.org/10.2307/1128389.
Snow, M. E., Jacklin, C. N., & Maccoby, E. E. (1983). Sex-of-child differences in father-child interaction at one year of age. Child Development, 54(1), 227–232. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129880.
Stennes, L. M., Burch, M. M., Sen, M. G., & Bauer, P. J. (2005). A longitudinal study of gendered vocabulary and communicative action in young children. Developmental Psychology, 41(1), 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.1.75.
Teichner, G., Ames, E. W., & Kerig, P. K. (1997). The relation of infant crying and the sex of the infant to parents’ perceptions of the infant and themselves. Psychology: A Journal of Human Behavior, 34, 59–60.
Teller, D. Y. (1979). The forced-choice preferential looking procedure: A psychophysical technique for use with human infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 2, 135–153.
Todd, B. K., Barry, J. A., & Thommessen, S. A. (2016). Preferences for ‘gender-typed’ toys in boys and girls aged 9 to 32 months. Infant and Child Development. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.
Tenebaum, H. R., & Leaper, C. (2002). Are parents’ gender schemas related to their children’s gender-related cognitions? A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 38, 34–57. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.38.4.615.
van de Beek, C., van Goozen, S. M., Buitelaar, J. K., & Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (2009). Prenatal sex hormones (maternal and amniotic fluid) and gender-related play behavior in 13-month-old infants. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38(1), 6–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9291-z.
von Hofsten, C., & Fazel-Zandy, S. (1984). Development of visually guided hand orientation in reaching. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 38(2), 208–219.
Weinraub, M., Clemens, L. P., Sockloff, A., Ethridge, T., Gracely, E., & Myers, B. (1984). The development of sex role stereotypes in the third year: Relationships to gender labeling, gender identity, sex-types toy preference, and family characteristics. Child Development, 55(4), 1493–1503. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130019.
Weisgram, E. S., Fulcher, M., & Dinella, L. M. (2014). Pink gives girls permission: Exploring the roles of explicit gender labels and gender-typed colors on preschool children’s toy preferences. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35, 401–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.06.004.
Wetherford, M. J., & Cohen, L. B. (1973). Developmental changes in infant visual preferences for novelty and familiarity. Child Development, 44, 416–424.
Wilkinson, N., Paikan, A., Gredebäck, G., Rea, F., & Metta, G. (2014). Staring us in the face? An embodied theory of innate face preference. Developmental Science, 17(6), 809–825. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12159.
Wood, E., Demarais, S., & Gugula, S. (2002). The impact of parenting experience of gender stereotyped toy play of children. Sex Roles, 47, 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020679619728.
Yelland, N., & Grieshaber, S. (1998). Blurring the edges. In N. Yelland (Ed.), Gender in early childhood (pp. 1–11). Florence, KY: Taylor & Francis/Routledge.
Zosuls, K. M., Ruble, D. N., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Shrout, P. E., Bornstein, M. H., & Greulich, F. K. (2009). The acquisition of gender labels in infancy: Implications for gender-typed play. Developmental Psychology, 45, 688–701. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014053.
Acknowledgements
The present research was supported in part by an Institutional Development Award (IDeA) from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences of the National Institutes of Health under grant number P20 GM103505.
We would like to thank Caitlin Van Voorhis, Ellen Honsa, Savanna Westrom and the research assistants of the Infant Cognitive Development Lab at North Dakota State University for their help with data collection and manuscript preparation, as well as the parents who agreed to have their infants participate in this research.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
All procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards set forth by the American Psychological Association and by the home institution’s Institutional Review Board. Informed consent and parental permission was obtained for all participants. This manuscript was funded in part by the National Institutes of Health. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests relating to this research.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 1033 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Boe, J.L., Woods, R.J. Parents’ Influence on Infants’ Gender-Typed Toy Preferences. Sex Roles 79, 358–373 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0858-4
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0858-4