Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Examination of Gender-role Portrayals in Television Advertising across Seven Countries

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the roles of cultural (Hofstede’s Masculinity value dimension—i.e., Gender of Nations), country-level (Gender-related Development Index), and execution-level (product type or gender of the typical user) factors in understanding gender-role portrayals in television advertising. Using content analysis methodology, we compared the gender and occupation of the prominent character and the gender of the voice-over across 2,608 television commercials in Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, South Korea, Thailand, and the United States. Results of regression analyses revealed that cultural and country factors predicted the gender of the voice-over only whereas product type consistently conformed with the gender of the prominent character. Overall, males were featured in prominent visual and auditory roles, while females were still portrayed in stereotypical ways.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Acevedo, C. R., Nohara, J. J., Arruda, A. L., Tamashiro, H. R. S., & Brashear, T. (2006). How women are depicted in ads? A content analysis study with Brazilian advertisements. International Business & Economics Research Journal, 5(10), 59–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Advertising Age (2005). 2005 Quick reference synopsis of the year's marketing and advertising data. Retrieved from http://www.adage.com/news.cms?newsId=44274.

  • Advertising Standards Canada. (n.d.). The Canadian Code of Advertising Standards. Retrieved from http://www.adstandards.com/en/Standards/canCodeOfAdStandards.aspx.

  • Ahlstrand, M. (2007). Gender stereotyping in television advertisements: A case of Austrian State Television (Bachelor thesis: Business Administration and Social Sciences/Industrial Marketing and e-commerce. Luleå Tekniska Universitet, Luleå, Sweden). Retrieved from http://epubl.ltu.se/1402-1773/2007/236/index-en.html.

  • Allison, N. K., Golden, L. L., Mullet, G. M., & Coogan, D. (1980). Sex-typed product images: The effects of sex, sex-role self-concept and measurement, implications. In J. Olson (Ed.), Advances in consumer research (Vol. 7, pp. 604–609). Ann Arbor: Association for Consumer Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alreck, P. L. (1994). Commentary: A new formula for tendering products and brands. Journal of Product and Brand Management, 3(1), 6–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alreck, P. L., Settle, R. B., & Belch, M. A. (1982). Who responds to ‘gendered’ ads, and how? Journal of Advertising Research, 22(2), 25–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • An, D., & Kim, S. (2007). Relating Hofstede’s masculinity dimension to gender role portrayals in advertising: A cross-cultural comparison of Web advertisements. International Marketing Review, 24, 181–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, M. (2009, December 7). Home Depot to launch Martha Stewart paint line. ABC News/Money. Retrieved from http://abcnews.go.com/Business/wireStory?id=9267602.

  • Bellizzi, J. A., & Milner, L. (1991). Gender positioning of a traditionally male-dominant product. Journal of Advertising Research, 31(3), 72–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L. (1993). The lenses of gender—Transforming the debate on sexual inequality. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bresnahan, M. J., Inoue, Y., Liu, W. Y., & Nishida, T. (2001). Changing gender roles in prime-time commercials in Malaysia, Japan, Taiwan, and the United States. Sex Roles, 45, 117–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bretl, D. J., & Cantor, J. (1988). The portrayal of men and women in U.S. television commercials: A recent content analysis and trends over 15 years. Sex Roles, 18, 595–609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chavez, D. (1985). Perpetuation of gender inequality: A content analysis of comic strips. Sex Roles, 13, 93–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, H. (1997). Holding up half the sky: A sociocultural comparison of gender role portrayals in Asian and U.S. advertising. International Journal of Advertising, 16, 295–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • Courtney, A. E., & Whipple, T. W. (1983). Sex stereotyping in advertising. Lexington: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dallmann, K. (2001). Targeting women in German and Japanese magazine advertising: A difference-in-differences approach. European Journal of Marketing, 35, 1320–1339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Mooij, M. K. (1998). Global marketing and advertising: Understanding cultural paradoxes. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Mooji, M. K. (2004). Consumer behavior and culture: Consequences for global marketing and advertising. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Debevec, K., & Iyer, E. (1986). The influence of spokespersons in altering a product's gender image: Implications for advertising effectiveness. Journal of Advertising, 15(4), 12–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Döring, N., & Pöschl, S. (2006). Images of men and women in mobile phone advertisements: A content analysis of advertisements for mobile communications systems in selected popular magazines. Sex Roles, 55, 173–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Effie Worldwide (2009). Damm Right. Retrieved from http://www.effie.org/winners/showcase/2009/3517.

  • Ferguson, J. H., Kreshel, P. J., & Tinkham, S. F. (1990). In the pages of Ms.: Sex role portrayals of women in advertising. Journal of Advertising, 19(1), 40–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. B., LaTour, M. S., Honeycutt, E. D. & Joseph, M. (1994). Female sex role portrayals in international advertising: Should advertisers standardize in the Pacific Rim? American Business Review, 12, 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. B., LaTour, M. S., & Clarke, I. (2004). A prescriptive essay concerning sex role portrayals in international advertising contexts. American Business Review, 22(1), 42–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. B., Voli, P. K., Honeycutt, E. D., Jr., & Casey, S. L. (1998). Gender role portrayals in Japanese advertising: A magazine content analysis. Journal of Advertising, 27(1), 113–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, J. (2000). Multiple and generalized nonparametric regression. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frith, K. T., & Mueller, B. (2003). Advertising and societies: Global issues. New York: Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., & Bitar, N. (1993). The stereotyped portrayal of men and women in British television advertisements. Sex Roles, 29, 297–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., & Farragher, E. (2000). A cross-cultural content analysis of sex-role stereotyping in television advertisements: A comparison between Great Britain and New Zealand. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 44, 415–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., & Mak, T. (1999). Sex-role stereotyping in television commercials: A review and comparison of fourteen studies done on five continents over 25 years. Sex Roles, 41, 413–437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., & Skae, E. (1997). Changes in stereotypical portrayal of men and women in British television advertisements. European Psychologist, 2, 44–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ganahl, D. J., Prinsen, T. J., & Netzle, S. B. (2003). A content analysis of prime time commercials: A contextual framework of gender representation. Sex Roles, 49, 545–551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilly, M. C. (1988). Sex roles in advertising: A comparison of television advertisements in Australia, Mexico, and the United States. Journal of Marketing, 52(2), 75–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goffman, E. (1978). Gender advertisements. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • González, G. (1999). Women lag behind on UN index. InterPress Third World News Agency (IPS). Retrieved from, http://www.converge.org.nz/lac/articles/news990724a.htm.

  • Gould, S. J., & Stern, B. B. (1989). Gender schema and fashion consciousness. Psychology & Marketing, 6(2), 129–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, P. E., Tull, D. S., & Albaum, G. (1988). Research for Marketing Decisions (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grubb, E. L., & Grathwohl, H. L. (1967). Consumer self-concept, symbolism, and market behavior: A theoretical approach. Journal of Marketing, 31, 22–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture’s consequences. London: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. (2003). Culture's consequences, comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoy, M. G., Morrison, M., & Punyapiroje, C. (2000). Adver-Thai-Sing standardization: Does the Western approach of investigating gender role portrayals transfer to Eastern countries? World Communication, 29(1), 52–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huang, J.-H. (1995). National character and sex roles in advertising. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 7(4), 81–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Human Development Reports (HDR) (2009). Measuring inequality: Gender-related Development Index (GDI) and Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM). Retrieved from, http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/indices/gdi_gem/.

  • Jeon, S. (Ed.) (2006). Business Dictionary by the Economist (pp. 85–86). Seoul, Korea: Window for the Future.

  • Kamins, M. A., & Gupta, K. (1994). Congruence between spokesperson and product type: A matchup hypothesis perspective. Psychology and Marketing, 11, 569–588.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kanungo, R. N., & Pang, S. (1973). Effects of human models on perceived product quality. Journal of Applied Psychology, 57, 172–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kates, S. M. (2002). The protean quality of subcultural consumption: An ethnographic account of gay consumers. Journal of Consumer Research, 29, 383–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, K., & Lowry, D. R. (2005). Television commercials as a lagging social indicator: Gender role stereotypes in Korean television advertising. Sex Roles, 53, 901–910.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kolbe, R. H., & Albanese, P. J. (1996). Man to man: A content analysis of sole-male images in male-audience magazines. Journal of Advertising, 25(4), 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin, C. A. (1993). Cultural differences in message strategies: A comparison between American and Japanese TV commercials. Journal of Advertising Research, 33(4), 40–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindsey, L. L. (2005). Gender roles: A sociological perspective (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynch, J., & Schuler, D. (1994). The matchup effect of spokesperson and product congruency: A schema theory interpretation. Psychology and Marketing, 11, 417–445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McArthur, L. Z., & Resko, B. G. (1975). The portrayal of men and women in American television commercials. Journal of Social Psychology, 97, 209–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menard, S. W. (2002). Applied logistic regression analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner, L. M. (2005). Sex-role portrayals in African television advertising: A preliminary examination with implications for the use of Hofstede's research. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 17(2/3), 73–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milner, L. M., & Collins, J. M. (1998). Sex role portrayals in Turkish television advertisements: An examination in an international context. Journal of Euromarketing, 7(1), 1–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milner, L. M., & Collins, J. M. (2000). Sex-role portrayals and the gender of nations. Journal of Advertising, 29(1), 67–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner, L. M., & Fodness, D. (1993). Product gender perception: The case of Turks. In G. S. Albaum, D. Alden, S. Askegaard, L. Milner, T. Muller, A. de Rocha, S. Smith, N. Synodinos, & J. Yu (Eds.), Proceedings of the fourth symposium on cross-cultural consumer and business studies (pp. 107–110). Oahu: The Association for Consumer Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner, L. M., & Fodness, D. (1996). Product gender perceptions: The case of China. International Marketing Review, 13(4), 40–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milner, L. M., & Higgs, B. (2004). Gender sex-role portrayals in international television advertising over time: The Australian experience. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 26(2), 81–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moon, Y. S., & Chan, K. (2005). Advertising appeals and cultural values in television commercials. International Marketing Review, 22(1), 48–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, M. M., & Shaffer, D. R. (2003). Gender-role congruence and self-referencing as determinants of advertising effectiveness. Sex Roles, 49, 265–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mueller, B. (2004). Dynamics of international advertising: Theoretical and practical perspectives. New York: Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mwangi, M. W. (1996). Gender roles portrayed in Kenyan television commercials. Sex Roles, 34, 205–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neff, J. (2008). Who killed body spray? Advertising Age, 79(43), 12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, M. R., & Paek, H.-J. (2007). A content analysis of advertising in a global magazine across seven countries: Implications for global advertising strategies. International Marketing Review, 24(1), 64–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, M. R., & Paek, H.-J. (2008). Nudity of female and male models in primetime TV advertising across seven countries. International Journal of Advertising, 27, 715–744.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neto, F., & Pinto, I. (1998). Gender stereotypes in Portuguese television advertisements. Sex Roles, 39, 153–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oderkerken-Schröder, G., de Wulf, K., & Hofstee, N. (2002). Is gender stereotyping in advertising more prevalent in masculine countries? International Marketing Review, 14, 408–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osgood, C. E., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1955). The principle of congruity in the prediction of attitude change. Psychological Review, 62(1), 42–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perreault, W. D., Jr., & Leigh, L. E. (1989). Reliability of nominal data based on qualitative judgments. Journal of Marketing Research, 26, 135–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pingree, S. (1978). The effects of nonsexist television commercials and perceptions of reality on children’s attitudes about women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 261–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riffe, D., Aust, C. F., & Lacy, S. R. (1993). The effectiveness of random, consecutive day and constructed week sampling in newspaper content analysis. Journalism Quarterly, 70, 133–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riffe, D., Stephen, L., & Fico, F. G. (1998). Analyzing media messages: Using quantitative content analysis in research. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rust, R. T., & Cooil, B. (1994). Reliability measures for qualitative data: Theory and implications. Journal of Marketing Research, 31, 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rustagi, P. (2004). Significance of gender-related development indicators: An analysis of Indian states. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 11, 291–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schenk, C. T., & Holman, R. H. (1980). A sociological approach to brand choice: The concept of situational self image. In J. Olson (Ed.), Advances in consumer research (Vol. 7, pp. 610–614). Ann Arbor: Association for Consumer Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, R. (1976). The female consumer. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, N., Zhao, H., & Hu, X. (2005). Analyzing the cultural content of Web sites: A cross-national comparison of China, India, Japan, and US. International Marketing Review, 22, 129–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, M. R. (1983). The role of products as social stimuli: A symbolic interactionism perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 10, 319–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, M. F. (2004). A cross-cultural comparison of advertising and attitudes to advertising in Denmark and the United States. (Doctoral dissertation). University Press of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.

  • United Nations Development Program (UNDP) (2002). Human development report. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • van de Vijver, F., & Leung, K. (1997). Methods and data analysis of comparative research. In J. W. Berry, Y. H. Poortinga, & J. Pandey (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 1. Theory and Method (2nd ed., pp. 257–300). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

  • Wee, C.-H., Choong, M.-L., & Tambyah, S.-K. (1995). Sex role portrayal in television advertising—A comparative study of Singapore and Malaysia. International Marketing Review, 12, 49–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whipple, T. W., & Courtney, A. E. (1985). Female role portrayals in advertising and communication effectiveness: A review. Journal of Advertising, 14(3), 4–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whipple, T. W., & McManamon, M. K. (2002). Implications of using male and female voices in commercials: An exploratory study. Journal of Advertising, 31(2), 79–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiles, J. A., Wiles, C. R., & Tjernlund, A. (1995). A comparison of gender role portrayals in magazine advertising: The Netherlands, Sweden and the USA. European Journal of Marketing, 29(11), 35–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Worth, L. T., Smith, J., & Mackie, D. M. (1992). Gender schematicity and preference for gender-typed products. Psychology & Marketing, 9(1), 17–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Advertising, Public Relations, and Retailing, College of Communication Arts & Science, Michigan State University, 320 CAS, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA

    Hye-Jin Paek

  2. Department of Advertising, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 102 Gregory Hall, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA

    Michelle R. Nelson

  3. Department of Mass Communication & Communication Studies, Towson University, 8000 York Road, Towson, MD, 21252-0001, USA

    Alexandra M. Vilela

Authors
  1. Hye-Jin Paek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Michelle R. Nelson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Alexandra M. Vilela
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hye-Jin Paek.

Appendix: Overview of the seven countries

Appendix: Overview of the seven countries

Table 7
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Paek, HJ., Nelson, M.R. & Vilela, A.M. Examination of Gender-role Portrayals in Television Advertising across Seven Countries. Sex Roles 64, 192–207 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9850-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9850-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation