Abstract
The present research tested whether gender self-concepts influence behavior through self-regulatory processes, with emotions and self-esteem signaling that people’s responses meet or fail to meet their gender standards. In the first study, cross-sectional survey data from 3,174 young adults living in the United States revealed that esteem increased with behavioral conformity to gender standards for personality. In the second study, an experience-sampling diary design provided a dynamic view of regulation to gender standards for personality and romance. One hundred seventy-seven American undergraduates reported their emotions and esteem immediately following everyday social interactions. As anticipated, students became more positive when they acted in ways that confirmed rather than disconfirmed personal gender standards.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155–162.
Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88, 369–371.
Best, D. L., & Thomas, J. J. (2004). Cultural diversity and cross-cultural perspectives. In A. H. Eagly, A. E. Beall, & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The psychology of gender (2nd ed., pp. 296–327). New York: Guilford Press.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2000). On the structure of behavioral self-regulation. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 41–84). San Diego: Academic.
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Collins, E. C., Crandall, C. S., & Biernat, M. (2006). Stereotypes and implicit social comparison: Shifts in comparison-group focus. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 452–459.
Diekman, A. B., & Eagly, A. H. (2000). Stereotypes as dynamic constructs: Women and men of the past, present, and future. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 117–1188.
Gardner, W. L., & Gabriel, S. (2004). Gender differences in relational and collective interdependence: Implications for self-views, social behavior, and subjective well-being. In A. H. Eagly, A. E. Beall, & R. Sternberg (Eds.), The psychology of gender (2nd ed., pp. 169–191). New York: Guilford Press.
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54, 493–503.
Grimmell, D. (1998). Effects of gender-role self-discrepancy on depressed mood. Sex Roles, 39, 203–214.
Grimmell, D., & Stern, G. S. (1992). The relationship between gender role ideals and psychological well-being. Sex Roles, 27, 487–497.
Halliwell, E., & Dittmar, H. (2007). Associations between appearance-related self-discrepancies and young women’s and men’s affect, body satisfaction, and emotional eating: A comparison of fixed-item and participant-generated self-discrepancies. Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 447–458.
Kenny, D. A., Kashy, D. A., & Bolger, N. (1998). Data analysis in social psychology. In D. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology, vol. 1 (4th ed., pp. 223–265). New York: McGraw Hill.
Moretti, M. M., & Higgins, E. T. (1999). Own versus other standpoints in self-regulation: Developmental antecedents and functional consequences. Review of General Psychology, 3, 188–223.
Newport, F. (2001, February 21). Americans see women as emotional and affectionate, men as more aggressive: Gender specific stereotypes persist in recent Gallup poll. Retrieved from Gallup Brain, http://brain.gallup.com.
Oliver, M. B., & Hyde, J. S. (1993). Gender differences in sexuality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 29–51.
Reis, H. T., & Wheeler, L. (1991). Studying social interaction with the Rochester Interaction Record. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 24, 269–318.
Robins, R. W., Hendin, H. M., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). Measuring global self-esteem: Construct validation of a single-item measure and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 151–161.
Rose, S., & Frieze, I. H. (1989). Young singles’ scripts for a first date. Gender and Society, 3, 258–268.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Sanchez, D., & Crocker, J. (2005). How investment in gender ideals affects well-being: The role of external contingencies of self-worth. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 63–77.
Spence, J. T., & Buckner, C. E. (2000). Instrumental and expressive traits, trait stereotypes, and sexist attitudes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 44–62.
Udry, J. R. (2003). The national longitudinal study of adolescent health (Add Health), waves I & II, 1994–1996; wave III, 2001–2002 [machine-readable data file and documentation]. Chapel Hill: Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1990). Measuring sex stereotypes: A multination study. Newbury Park: Sage.
Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2009). Gender identity. In M. Leary & R. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of individual differences (pp. 109–128). New York: Guilford Press.
Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2010). Gender. In S. T. Fiske, D. T. Gilbert, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology, vol. 1 (5th ed., pp. 629–667). New York: McGraw Hill.
Wood, W., Christensen, P. N., Hebl, M. R., & Rothgerber, H. (1997). Conformity to sex-typed norms, affect, and the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 523–535.
Acknowledgement
This research uses data from Add Health, a program project designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris, and funded by grant P01-HD31921 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, with cooperative funding from 17 other agencies. Persons interested in obtaining data files from Add Health should contact Add Health, Carolina Population Center, 123 W. Franklin Street, Chapel Hill, NC 27516-2524 (addhealth@unc.edu). The authors thank Philip Costanzo, Rick Hoyle, and Timothy Strauman for their comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript and Deborah Kashy for her help with the multilevel model analysis.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendix
Appendix
Items from Bem (1974) Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
Agentic | Communal | Negative |
Defends beliefs | Is affectionate | Is moody |
Is independent | Is conscientious | Is jealous |
Is assertive | Is sympathetic | Is forceful |
Is reliable | Is sensitive | Is secretive |
Has a strong personality | Is understanding | Willing to take risks |
Has leadership skills | Is compassionate | Is dominant |
Willing to take a stand | Is truthful | Is conceited |
Eager to heal hurt feelings | Is aggressive | |
Is warm | ||
Is adaptable | ||
Is tender | ||
Loves children | ||
Is tactful | ||
Is gentle | ||
Is conventional |
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Witt, M.G., Wood, W. Self-regulation of Gendered Behavior in Everyday Life. Sex Roles 62, 635–646 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9761-y
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9761-y