Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Explaining Gender Differences in Depression: an Interpersonal Contingent Self-Esteem Perspective

  • Feminist Forum
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The quality of interpersonal relationships may be a key factor in the etiology of depression. An interpersonal depressive vulnerability has been proposed to interact with interpersonal stressors to predict depressive symptoms. Research examining gender differences in this link has been inconclusive. We propose that research should focus on whether one’s self-esteem is based on the quality of interpersonal relationships. We propose a model of gender differences in depression that examines the role of interpersonal contingent self-esteem (ICSE) in the development of depression. Specifically, we propose that ICSE interacts with gender in the face of interpersonal stress to promote decreases in momentary self-esteem. Decreases in momentary self-esteem, in turn, lead to rumination, maladaptive interpersonal behaviors, and depressive symptoms.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abela, J. R. Z., & Taylor, G. (2003). Specific vulnerability to depressive mood reactions in schoolchildren: the moderating role of self-esteem. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 408–418.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Webb, C. A., Wagner, C., Ho, M.-H. R., & Adams, P. (2006). The role of self-criticism, dependency, and hassles in the course of depressive illness: a multiwave longitudinal study. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 328–338.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: a theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 358–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Acitelli, L. K. (1988). When spouses talk to each other about their relationship. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5, 185–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Acitelli, L. K. (1992). Gender differences in relationship awareness and marital satisfaction among young married couples. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 102–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Acitelli, L. K., & Antonucci, T. E. (1994). Gender differences in the link between marital support and satisfaction in older couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 688–698.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Acitelli, L. K., Cambron, M. J., Verratti, M. A., & Knee, C. R. (2006). Relationship-contingent self-esteem is a risk factor for depressive symptoms in women but not men. Palm Springs, CA: Paper presented at the Society for Personality and Social Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Acitelli, L. K., Douvan, E., & Veroff, J. (1993). Perceptions of conflict in the first year of marriage: how important are similarity and understanding? Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 10, 5–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Acitelli, L. K., Rogers, S., & Knee, C. R. (1999). The role of identity in the link between relationship thinking and relationship satisfaction. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 16, 591–618.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bacchiochi, J. R., Bagby, R. M., Cristi, C., & Watson, J. (2003). Validation of connectedness and neediness as dimensions of the dependency construct. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 233–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1983). Cognitive therapy of depression: new perspectives. In P. J. Clayton & J. E. Barrett (Eds.), Treatment of depression: Old controversies and new approaches, pp. 265–290. New York: Raven.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1987). Cognitive models of depression. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly, 1, 5–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., & Harrison, R. (1983). Cognitions, attitudes and personality dimensions in depression. British Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 1, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blatt, S. J. (1974). Levels of object representation in anaclitic and introjective depression. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 29, 7–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blatt, S. J., & Maroudas, C. (1992). Convergences among psychoanalytic and cognitive-behavioral theories of depression. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 9, 157–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blatt, S. J., Quinlan, D. M., Chevron, E. S., McDonald, C., & Zuroff, D. C. (1982). Dependency and self-criticism: psychological dimensions of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 113–124.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blatt, S. J., & Zuroff, D. C. (1992). Interpersonal relatedness and self-definition: two prototypes for depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 12, 527–562.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bornstein, R. F. (1992). The dependent personality: developmental, social, and clinical perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 3–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boyce, P., Parker, G., Barnett, B., Cooney, M., & Smith, F. (1991). Personality as a vulnerability factor to depression. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 106–114.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burwell, R. A., & Shirk, S. R. (2006). Self processes in adolescent depression: the role of self-worth contingencies. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 479–490.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler, A. C., Hokanson, J. E., & Flynn, H. A. (1994). A comparison of self-esteem lability and low trait self-esteem as vulnerability factors for depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 166–177.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cambron, M. J., Acitelli, L. K., & Pettit, J. W. (2008). When women's self-esteem hinges on relationships: a contingent self-esteem model of gender differences in depression. In P. R. Bancroft & L. B. Ardley (Eds.), Major depression in women. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cambron, M.J., Acitelli, L.K., & Steinberg, L. (under review). When friends make you blue: The role of friendship contingent self-esteem in predicting self-esteem and depressive symptoms. Manuscript under review. University of Houston.

  • Casbon, T. S., Burns, A. B., Bradbury, T. N., & Joiner, T. E,. Jr. (2005). Receipt of negative feedback is related to increased negative feedback seeking among individuals with depressive symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 485–504.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chevron, E. S., Quinlan, D. M., & Blatt, S. J. (1978). Sex roles and gender differences in the experience of depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 680–683.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Lorenz, F. O., Elder, G. H,. Jr, Simons, R. L., & Ge, X. (1993). Husband and wife differences in response to undesirable life events. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 34, 71–88.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coopersmith, S. (1981). Manual for the self-esteem inventories. Palo Alto: CA: Consulting Psychologists.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coyne, J. C. (1976a). Depression and the response of others. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 186–193.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coyne, J. C. (1976b). Toward an interactional description of depression. Psychiatry: Journal for the Study of Interpersonal Processes, 39, 28–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coyne, J. C., & Whiffen, V. E. (1995). Issues in personality as diathesis for depression: the case of sociotropy-dependency and autonomy-self-criticism. Psychological Bulletin, 118, 358–378.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, J. (2002). Contingencies of self-worth: implications for self-regulation and psychological vulnerability. Self and Identity, 1, 143–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, J., Karpinski, A., Quinn, D. M., & Chase, S. K. (2003). When grades determine self-worth: consequences of contingent self-worth for male and female engineering and psychology majors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 507–516.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, J., & Luhtanen, R. K. (2003). Level of self-esteem and contingencies of self-worth: Unique effects on academic, social, and financial problems in college freshman. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 701–712.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (2004). The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 392–414.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, J., Sommers, S. R., & Luhtanen, R. K. (2002). Hopes dashed and dreams fulfilled: contingencies of self-worth and graduate school admissions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1275–1286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C. T. (2001). Contingencies of self-worth. Psychological Review, 108, 593–623.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cross, S. E., & Madson, L. (1997). Models of the self: self-construals and gender. Psychological Bulletin, 122, 5–37.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cyranowski, J. M., Frank, E., Young, E., & Shear, K. (2000). Adolescent onset of the gender difference in lifetime rates of major depression: a theoretical model. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 21–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dance, K. A., & Kuiper, N. A. (1987). Self-schemata, social roles, and a self-worth contingency model of depression. Motivation and Emotion, 11, 251–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, M. C., Matthews, K. A., & Twamley, E. W. (1999). Is life more difficult on mars or venus? A meta-analytic review of sex differences in major and minor life events. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 21, 83–97.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1995). Human autonomy: the basis for true self-esteem. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem, pp. 31–49. New York, NY: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drew, S., Heesacker, M., Frost, H., & Oelke, L. (2004). The role of relationship loss and self-loss in women's and men's dysphoria. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 21, 381–397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eberhart, N. K., & Hammen, C. L. (2006). Interpersonal predictors of onset of depression during the transition to adulthood. Personal Relationships, 13, 195–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frewen, P. A., & Dozois, D. J. A. (2006). Self-worth appraisal of life events and beck's congruency model of depression vulnerability. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 20, 231–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giesler, R. B., Josephs, R. A., & Swann, W. B,. Jr. (1996). Self-verification in clinical depression: the desire for negative evaluation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 358–368.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gore, J. S., Cross, S. E., & Morris, M. L. (2006). Let's be friends: relational self-construal and the development of intimacy. Personal Relationships, 13, 83–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gore, S., Aseltine, R. H., & Colten, M. E. (1993). Gender, social-relational involvement, and depression. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 3, 101–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gotlib, I. H., & Hammen, C. L. (1992). Psychological aspects of depression: Toward a cognitive-interpersonal integration. Chichester, UK: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C. (1991). Generation of stress in the course of unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 555–561.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C. (2005). Stress and depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema (Ed.), Annual Review of Clinical Psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 293-319).

  • Hankin, B. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: an elaborated cognitive vulnerability-transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 773–796.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., & Angell, K. E. (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 128–140.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L., Mermelstein, R., & Roesch, L. (2007). Sex differences in adolescent depression: stress exposure and reactivity models. Child Development, 78, 279–295.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (1983). Developmental perspectives on the self-system. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol 4. Socialization, personality, and social development (4th ed.), pp. 275–386. New York: John Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (1989). Causes, correlates, and the functional role of global self-worth: a life-span perspective. In J. Kolligian & R. Sternberg (Eds.), Perceptions of competence and incompetence across the life span. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (1999). A model of the causes, correlates, and consequences of global self-worth. In S. Harter (Ed.), The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York, NY, US: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S., & Whitesell, N. R. (1996). Multiple pathways to self-reported depression and psychological adjustment among adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 761–777.

    Google Scholar 

  • Husky, M. M., Mazure, C. M., Maciejewski, P. K., & Swendsen, J. D. (2007). A daily life comparison of sociotropy-autonomy and hopelessness theories of depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 31, 659–676.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, J. S., Mezulis, A. H., & Abramson, L. Y. (2008). The ABCs of depression: Integrating affective, biological, and cognitive models to explain the emergence of the gender difference in depression. Psychological Review, 115, 291–313.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E,. Jr. (1994). Contagious depression: existence, specificity to depressed symptoms, and the role of reassurance seeking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 287–296.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E,. Jr. (2000). Depression's vicious scree: self-propagating and erosive processes in depression chronicity. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 7, 203–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E,. Jr, & Schmidt, N. B. (1998). Excessive reassurance-seeking predicts depressive but not anxious reactions to acute stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 533–537.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E,. Jr, & Metalsky, G. I. (2001). Excessive reassurance seeking: delineating a risk factor involved in the development of depressive symptoms. Psychological Science, 12, 371–378.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E,. Jr, Alfano, M. S., & Metalsky, G. I. (1992). When depression breeds contempt: reassurance seeking, self-esteem, and rejection of depressed college students by their roommates. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 165–173.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E,. Jr, Alfano, M. S., & Metalsky, G. I. (1993). Caught in the crossfire: depression, self-consistency, self-enhancement, and the response of others. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 12, 113–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E,. Jr, Katz, J., & Lew, A. S. (1997). Self-verification and depression among youth psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 608–618.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E,. Jr, Katz, J., & Lew, A. (1999a). Harbingers of depressotypic reassurance seeking: Negative life events, increased anxiety, and decreased self-esteem. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 632–639.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E,. Jr, Metalsky, G. I., Katz, J., & Beach, S. R. H. (1999b). Depression and excessive reassurance-seeking. Psychological Inquiry, 10, 269–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, J., Beach, S. R. H., & Joiner, T. E,. Jr. (1998). When does partner devaluation predict depression? Prospective moderating effects of reassurance-seeking and self-esteem. Personal Relationships, 5, 409–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kernis, M. H., Whisenhunt, C. R., Waschull, S. B., Greenier, K. D., Berry, A. J., Herlocker, C. E., et al. (1998). Multiple facets of self-esteem and their relations to depressive symptoms. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 657–668.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Schwartz, M., Blazer, D. G., & Nelson, C. B. (1993). Sex and depression in the national comorbidity survey I: lifetime prevalence, chronicity, and recurrence. Journal of Affective Disorders, 29, 85–96.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuiper, N. A., & Olinger, L. J. (1986). Dysfunctional attitudes and a self-worth contingency model of depression. In P. C. Kendall (Ed.), Advances in cognitive-behavioral research and therapy, Vol. 5, pp. 115–142. New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuiper, N. A., & Olinger, L. J. (1989). Stress and cognitive vulnerability for depression: a self-worth contingency model of depression. In R. W. J. Neufeld (Ed.), Advances in the investigation of psychological stress, pp. 367–391. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuiper, N. A., Olinger, L. J., & MacDonald, M. R. (1988). Vulnerability and episodic cognitions in a self-worth contingency model of depression. In L. B. Alloy (Ed.), Cognitive processes in depression, pp. 289–309. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leadbeater, B. J., Blatt, S. J., & Quinlan, D. M. (1995). Gender-linked vulnerabilities to depressive symptoms, stress, and problem behaviors in adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 5, 1–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1995). Effects of self-focused rumination on negative thinking and interpersonal problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 176–190.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacPhee, A. R., & Andrews, J. J. W. (2006). Risk factors for depression in early adolescence. Adolescence, 41, 435–466.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., & O'Neill, R. (1984). Self description questionnaire III: the construct validity of multidimensional self-concept ratings by late adolescents. Journal of Educational Measurement, 21, 153–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mezulis, A. H., Abramson, L. Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2002). Domain specificity of gender differences in rumination. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 16, 421–434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mongrain, M., Lubbers, R., & Struthers, W. (2004). The power of love: mediation of rejection in roommate relationships of dependents and self-critics. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 94–105.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mongrain, M., & Zuroff, D. C. (1994). Ambivalence over emotional expression and negative life events: mediators of depressive symptoms in dependent and self-critical individuals. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 447–458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1990). Sex differences in depression Stanford. CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). Further evidence for the role of psychosocial factors in depression chronicity. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 7, 224–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2001). Gender differences in depression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 173–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J.S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424–443.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Jackson, B. (2001). Mediators of the gender difference in rumination. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 37–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C. (1999). Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1061–1072.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 115–121.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ohannessian, C. M., Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., & von Eye, A. (1994). A longitudinal study of perceived family adjustment and emotional adjustment in early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 14, 371–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohannessian, C. M., Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., & von Eye, A. (1999). Does self-competence predict gender differences in adolescent depression and anxiety? Journal of Adolescence, 22, 397–411.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pettit, J. W., & Joiner, T. E,. Jr. (2001). Negative-feedback seeking leads to depressive symptom increases under conditions of stress. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 23, 69–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Potthoff, J. G., Holahan, C. J., & Joiner, T. E. (1995). Reassurance seeking, stress generation, and depressive symptoms: an integrative model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 664–670.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prinstein, M. J., & La Greca, A. M. (2002). Peer crowd affiliation and internalizing distress in childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal follow-back study. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12, 325–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, P. R., & Tanck, R. H. (1991). Gender differences in the attribution of causes for depressed feelings. Psychological Reports, 68, 1209–1210.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, J. E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1997). Temporal variability in global self-esteem and specific self-evaluation as prospective predictors of emotional distress: specificity in predictors and outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 521–529.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, J. E., & Kassel, J. D. (1997). Labile self-esteem, life stress, and depressive symptoms: prospective data testing a model of vulnerability. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 21, 569–589.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, J. E., & Monroe, S. M. (1992). Vulnerable self-esteem and depressive symptoms: Prospective findings comparing three alternative conceptualizing. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 62, 804–812.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robins, C. J., Bagby, M. R., Rector, N. A., Lynch, T. R., & Kennedy, S. H. (1997). Sociotropy, autonomy, and patterns of symptoms in patients with major depression: a comparison of dimensional and categorical approaches. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 21, 285–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robins, C. J., Hayes, A. M., Block, P., & Kramer, R. J. (1995). Interpersonal and achievement concerns and the depressive vulnerability and symptom specificity hypotheses: a prospective study. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 19, 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robins, C. J., & Luten, A. G. (1991). Sociotropy and autonomy differential patterns of clinical presentation in unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 74–77.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rude, S. S., & Burnham, B. L. (1995). Connectedness and neediness: factors of the DEQ and SAS dependency scales. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 19, 323–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudolph, K. D., & Hammen, C. (1999). Age and gender as determinants of stress exposure, generation, and reactions in youngsters: a transactional perspective. Child Development, 70, 660–677.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanathara, V. A., Gardner, C. O., Prescott, C. A., & Kendler, K. S. (2003). Interpersonal dependence and major depression: aetiological inter-relationship and gender differences. Psychological Medicine, 33, 927–931.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sargent, J. T., Crocker, J., & Luhtanen, R. K. (2006). Contingencies of self-worth and depressive symptoms in college students. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25, 628–646.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, C. K., Fuhrman, R. W., & Wyer, R. S,. Jr. (1996). Information processing in close relationships. In G. J. O. Fletcher & F. Fincham (Eds.), Cognition in close relationships, pp. 37–67. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shahar, G., Blatt, S. J., Zuroff, D. C., Kuperminc, G. P., & Leadbeater, B. J. (2004). Reciprocal relations between depressive symptoms and self-criticism (but not dependency) among early adolescent girls (but Not Boys). Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 85–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swann, W. B. (1983). Self-verification: bringing social reality into harmony with the self. In J. Suls & A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Social psychological perspectives on the self, Vol. 2, pp. 33–66. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swann, W. B. (1990). To be known or to be adored: the interplay of self-enhancement and self-verification. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition, Vol. 2, pp. 408–448. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swann, W. B., & Read, S. J. (1981). Acquiring self-knowledge: the search for feedback that fits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 1119–1128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swann, W. B., Griffin, J. J., Predmore, S. C., & Gaines, B. (1987). The cognitive-affective crossfire: when self-consistency confronts self-enhancement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 881–889.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swann, W. B., Stein-Seroussi, A., & Giesler, R. B. (1992a). Why people self-verify. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 392–401.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swann, W. B., Wenzlaff, R. M., & Tafarodi, R. W. (1992b). Depression and the search for negative evaluations: more evidence of the role of self-verification strivings. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 314–317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swann, W. B., De La Ronde, C., & Hixon, J. G. (1994). Authenticity and positivity strivings in marriage and courtship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 857–869.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tevendale, H. D., DuBois, D. L., Lopez, C., & Prindiville, S. L. (1997). Self-esteem stability and early adolescent adjustment. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 17, 216–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: a psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 247–259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2002). Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort differences on the children's depression inventory: a meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 11, 578–588.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woike, B. A., Aronoff, J., & Stollack, G. E. (1994). Links between intrapsychic and interpersonal defenses in dyadic interaction. Journal of Research in Personality, 28, 101–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zuroff, D. C., & Mongrain, M. (1987). Dependency and self-criticism: vulnerability factors for depressive affective states. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 14–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zuroff, D. C., Igreja, I., & Mongrain, M. (1990a). Dysfunctional attitudes, dependency, and self-criticism as predictors of depressive mood states: a 12-month longitudinal study. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 315–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zuroff, D. C., Quinlan, D. M., & Blatt, S. J. (1990b). Psychometric properties of the depressive experiences questionnaire in a college population. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55, 65–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zuroff, D. C., Mongrain, M., & Santor, D. A. (2004). Conceptualizing and measuring personality vulnerability to depression: comment on Coyne and Whiffen (1995). Psychological Bulletin, 130, 489–511.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Author notes

  1. M. Janelle Cambron

    Present address: Texas A&M University, TX, USA

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Houston, 126 Heyne Building, Houston, TX, 77204-5022, USA

    M. Janelle Cambron, Linda K. Acitelli & Jeremy W. Pettit

Authors
  1. M. Janelle Cambron
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Linda K. Acitelli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jeremy W. Pettit
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M. Janelle Cambron.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Cambron, M.J., Acitelli, L.K. & Pettit, J.W. Explaining Gender Differences in Depression: an Interpersonal Contingent Self-Esteem Perspective. Sex Roles 61, 751–761 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9616-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9616-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation