Skip to main content
Log in

Slurs, Snubs, and Queer Jokes: Incidence and Impact of Heterosexist Harassment in Academia

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Previous research has suggested that overt hostility against sexual minorities is associated with decrements in their well-being. However, subtler forms of heterosexism and their potential effects have been overlooked, heterosexuals have not been asked how they fare in a heterosexist environment, and no research has examined whether women and men might respond differently to heterosexism. Data from 3,128 northwestern US university students (representing all sexual orientations) address these gaps. Approximately 40% reported experiences of heterosexist harassment (HH) in the past year, and those who encountered both ambient and personal HH reported worse psychological and academic well-being than those who encountered no HH. Similar patterns of findings held for sexual minorities and heterosexuals, and for women and men.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Badgett, M. V. (1996). Employment and sexual orientation: Disclosure and discrimination in the work place. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 4, 29–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Badgett, M. V. L. (2003). Employment and sexual orientation: Disclosure and discrimination in the workplace. In L. D. Garnets & D. C. Kimmel (Eds.), Psychology perspectives on lesbian, gay, and bisexual experiences (pp. 327–348). New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banyard, V. L., Williams, L. M., & Siegel, J. A. (2001). The long-term mental health consequences of child sexual abuse: An exploratory study of the impact of multiple traumas in a sample of women. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 697–715.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, S., Nind, M., Hall, K., Collins, J., & Sheehy, K. (2003). Moments of inclusion and exclusion: Pupils negotiating classroom contexts. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 24, 547–558.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berrill, K. T. (1992). Organizing against hate on campus: Strategies for activists. In G. M. Herek (Ed.), Hate crimes: Confronting violence against lesbians and gay men (pp. 259–269). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boulet, J., & Boss, M. W. (1991). Reliability and validity of the Brief Symptom Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 3, 433–437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, C., & McCabe, S. (1999). 2001 University of Michigan Student Life Survey. Unpublished survey. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

  • Brackney, B. E., & Karabenick, S. A. (1995). Psychopathology and academic performance: The role of motivation and learning strategies. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 42, 456–465.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R. D., Clarke, B., Gortmaker, V., & Robinson-Keilig, R. (2004). Assessing the campus climate for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) students using a multiple perspectives approach. Journal of College Student Development, 45, 8–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burn, S. M., Kadlec, K., & Rexer, R. (2005). Effects of subtle heterosexism on gays, lesbians, and bisexuals. Journal of Homosexuality, 49, 23–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cortina, L., Swan, S., Fitzgerald, L., & Waldo, C. (1998). Sexual harassment and assault: Chilling the climate for women in academia. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 419–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Croteau, J. M., & Lark, J. S. (1995). On being lesbian, gay, or bisexual in student affairs: A national survey of experiences on the job. NASPA Journal, 32, 189–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Augelli, A. R. (1992). Lesbian and gay male undergraduates’ experiences of harassment and fear on campus. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 7, 383–395.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Augelli, A. R., & Grossman, A. H. (2001). Disclosure of sexual orientation, victimization, and mental health among lesbian, gay, and bisexual older adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 1008–1027.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D’Augelli, A. R., & Rose, M. L. (1990). Homophobia in a university community: Attitudes and experiences of heterosexual freshmen. Journal of College Student Development, 31, 484–491.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R., & Melisaratos, N. (1983). The brief symptom inventory: An introductory report. Psychological Medicine, 13, 596–605.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R., & Savitz, K. L. (2000). The SCL-90-R and Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) in primary care. In M. E. Maruish (Ed.) Handbook of psychological assessment in primary care settings (pp. 297–334). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dillman, D. A. (2000). Mail and Internet surveys: The tailored design method. New York: Wiley-Interscience.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eliason, M. J. (1996). Identity formation for lesbian, bisexual and gay persons: Beyond a “minoritizing” view. Journal of Homosexuality, 30, 31–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fineran, S. (2002). Sexual harassment between same-sex peers: Intersection of mental health, homophobia, and sexual violence in schools. Social Work, 47, 65–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finkel, M. J., Storaasli, R. D., Bandele, A., & Schaefer, V. (2003). Diversity training in graduate school: An exploratory evaluation of the Safe Zone project. Professional Psychology Research and Practice, 34, 555–561.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, A. R., & Shaw, C. M. (1999). African Americans’ mental health and perceptions of racist discrimination: The moderating effects of racial socialization experiences and self-esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 395–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Follette, V. M., Polusny, M., Bechtle, A. E., & Naugle, A. E. (1996). Cumulative trauma: The impact of child sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and spouse abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 25–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, K. (2000). Antigay behaviors among young adults: Prevalence, patterns, and motivators in a noncriminal population. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 339–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gee, G. C. (2002). A multilevel analysis of the relationship between institutional and individual racial discrimination and health status. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 615–623.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glomb, T. M., Richman, W. L., Hulin, C. L., Drasgow, F., Schneider, K. T., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1997). Ambient sexual harassment: An integrated model of antecedents and consequences. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 71, 1309–1328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, B. C. (1998). Thinking about students who do not identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual, but... Journal of American College Health, 47, 89–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green, B. L., Goodman, L. A., Krupnick, J. L, Corcoran, C. B., Petty, R. M., Stockton, P., et al. (2000). Outcomes of single versus multiple trauma exposure in a screening sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 271–286.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gutierres, S. E., Saenz, D. S., & Green, B. L. (1994). Job stress and health outcomes among White and Hispanic employees: A test of the person–environment fit model. In G. Keita & J. Hurrel, Jr. (Eds.), Job stress in a changing workforce: Investigating gender, diversity, and family issues (pp. 107–125). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hanisch, K. A., & Hulin, C. L. (1990). Job attitudes and organizational withdrawal: An examination of retirement and other voluntary withdrawal behaviors. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 37, 60–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanisch, K. A., & Hulin, C. L. (1991). General attitudes and organizational withdrawal: An evaluation of a causal model. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 39, 110–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrell, J. P., Hall, S., & Taliaferro, J. (2003). Physiological responses to racism and discrimination: An assessment of the evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 243–247.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrist, A. W., & Bradley, K. D. (2002). Social exclusion in the classroom: Teachers and students as agents of change. In J. Aronson (Ed.), Improving academic achievement: Impact of psychological factors on education (pp. 363–383). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M. (1986). On heterosexual masculinity: Some psychical consequences of the social construction of gender and sexuality. American Behavioral Scientist, 29, 563–577.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M. (1990). The context of anti-gay violence: Notes on cultural and psychological heterosexism. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5, 316–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M. (1993). Documenting prejudice against lesbians and gay men on campus: The Yale sexual orientation survey. Journal of Homosexuality, 25, 15–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinrichs, D. W., & Rosenberg, P. J. (2002). Attitudes toward gay, lesbian, and bisexual persons among heterosexual liberal arts college students. Journal of Homosexuality, 43, 61–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R., Mickelson, K., & Williams, D. (1999). The prevalence, distribution, and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40, 208–230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kite, M. E., & Whitley, B. E., Jr. (1996). Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexual persons, behaviors, and civil rights: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 336–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kite, M. E., & Whitley, B. E., Jr. (1998). Do heterosexual women and men differ in their attitudes toward homosexuality? A conceptual and methodological analysis. In G. M. Herek (Ed.), Stigma and sexual orientation: Understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (pp. 39–61). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitzinger, C. (2001). Sexualities. In R. K. Unger (Ed.), Handbook of the psychology of women and gender (pp. 272–285). New York: John Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Konik, J., & Cortina, L. M. (in press). Policing gender at work: Intersections of harassment based on sex and sexuality. Social Justice Research.

  • McCreary, D. R. (1994). The male role and avoiding femininity. Sex Roles, 31, 517–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 38–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miner-Rubino, K., & Cortina, L. M. (2004). Working in a context of hostility toward women: Implications for employee well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 9, 107–122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munson, L. J., Hulin, C., & Drasgow, F. (2000). Longitudinal analysis of dispositional influences and sexual harassment: Effects on job and psychological outcomes. Personnel Psychology, 53, 21–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norris, W. P. (1992). Liberal attitudes and homophobic acts: The paradoxes of homosexual experience in a liberal institution. Journal of Homosexuality, 22, 81–120.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Otis, M. D., & Skinner, W. F. (1996). The prevalence of victimization and its effect on mental well-being among lesbian and gay people. Journal of Homosexuality, 30, 93–120.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pimlott-Kubiak, S., & Cortina, L. M. (2003). Gender, victimization, and outcomes: Reconceptualizing risk. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 528–539.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R., & Cornwell, J. M. (2001). Pink triangles: Antecedents and consequences of perceived workplace discrimination against gay and lesbian employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 1244–1261.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramos, A. (2000). Sexual harassment at the University of Puerto Rico. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

  • Rankin, S. R. (2003). Campus climate for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people: A national perspective. New York: The National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Dansky, B. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1993). Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 61, 984–991.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richman-Hirsch, W. L., & Glomb, T. M. (2002). Are men affected by the sexual harassment of women? Effects of ambient sexual harassment on men. In J. M. Brett & F. Drasgow (Eds.), Psychology of work: Theoretically based empirical research (pp. 212–240). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, B. E. (1987). Graduate women, sexual harassment, and university policy. Journal of Higher Education, 58, 46–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, K. T. (1996, August). Bystander stress: Effects of sexual harassment on victims’ coworkers. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Psychological Association, Toronto.

  • Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B., Nadal, K. L., et al. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62, 271–286.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Svanum, S., & Zody, Z. B. (2001). Psychopathology and college grades. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 48(1), 72–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 31–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waldo, C. (1998). Out on campus: Sexual orientation and academic climate in a university context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26, 745–774.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waldo, C. (1999). Working in a majority context: A structural model of heterosexism as minority stress in the workplace. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 218–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waldo, C., Hesson-McInnis, M., & D’Augelli, A. R. (1998). Antecedents and consequences of victimization of lesbian, gay, and bisexual young people: A structural model comparing rural university and urban samples. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26, 307–334.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 200–208.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to our respective labs at the Universities of Michigan and Connecticut for their work on the larger project. Special thanks to Kathi Miner-Rubino for her suggestion that the concept of bystander stress might be applied in a sexual-minority context.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Perry Silverschanz.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Silverschanz, P., Cortina, L.M., Konik, J. et al. Slurs, Snubs, and Queer Jokes: Incidence and Impact of Heterosexist Harassment in Academia. Sex Roles 58, 179–191 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9329-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9329-7

Keywords

Navigation