Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

American and Chinese College Students’ Anticipations of Their Postgraduate Education, Career, and Future Family Roles

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

American and Chinese college students’ anticipations showed no gender differences in their desires for postgraduate education, marriage, and parental status. Stereotypical gender differences emerged in both countries when caregiving roles were considered: Both men and women rated it more likely for women than for men to quit their jobs to be caregivers. Overall, male college students, the Chinese men in particular, felt less comfortable than did women in situations where their spouses were superior in earnings, achievements, and social status. More Chinese than American students planned to enter marriage and parenthood at a later age, and the Chinese students rated the importance of family lower. These findings are discussed in light of the general sociocultural model and the role distribution theory.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bannoy-Hiller, D., & Philliber, W. W. (1989). Equal partners: Successful women in marriage. Newbury Park, California: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baxter, J. (1997). Gender equality and participation in housework: A cross-national perspective. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 28, 220–247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, C., & Bolzendahl, C. (2004). The transformation of US gender role attitudes: Cohort replacement, social-structural change, and ideological learning. Social Science Research, 33, 106–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bu, N., & McKeen, C. A. (2000). Work and family expectations of the future managers and professionals of Canada and China. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15, 771–794.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, L. (1999). Gender role egalitarian attitudes in Beijing, Hong Kong, Florida, and Michigan. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30, 722–741.

    Google Scholar 

  • China Daily. (2002, December 16). Women still a long way from equal pay. Retrieved February 7, 2004, from http://www.china.org.cn/english/2002/Dec/51263.htm

  • Chinese Consulate General in New York. (2005). Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China. Retrieved July 4, 2005, from http://www.nyconsulate.prchina.org/eng/lsqz/laws/t42222.htm

  • Coltrane, S. (1997). Family man: Fatherhood, housework, and gender equity. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crispell, D. (1994, March). Mr. Mom goes mainstream. American Demographics, 16, 59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cross, S. E., & Madson, L. (1997). Models of the self: Self-construals and gender. Psychological Bulletin, 122, 5–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dong, H. (1995, September). Chinese women: Bridging the gap between legal equality and reality. Paper presented at the international women’s conference. Beijing, China.

  • ePODUNK, the Power of Place. (2000). Education: Joliet, IL. Retrieved November 6, 2005, from http://www.epodunk.com/cgi-bin/educLevel.php?locIndex=6293

  • Eagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1984). Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 735–754.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez, D. R., Carlson, D. S., Stepina, P. L., & Nicholson, J. D. (1997). Hofstede’s country classification 25 years later. Journal of Social Psychology, 137, 43–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuwa, M. (2004). Macro-level gender inequality and the division of household labor in 22 countries. American Sociological Review, 69, 751–767.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao, K. (2001, May 15). New elements in the revised Marriage Law. China Internet Information Center. Retrieved June 30, 2005, from http://www.china.org.cn/english/2001/May/12670.htm

  • Greene, A. L. (1990). Great expectations: Constructions of the life course during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 19, 289–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greene, A. L., & Wheatley, S. M. (1992). “I’ve got a lot to do and I don’t think I’ll have the time”: Gender differences in late adolescents’ narratives. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21(6), 667–686.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, L. W. (1977). Changes in family roles, socialization, and sex differences. American Psychologist, 32, 644–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, California: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holstein, W. J. (2004, May 9). Looking in the mirror, and finding the new boss. New York Times, pp. 3, 9. Retrieved July 21, 2004, from ProQuest database.

  • Johannesen-Schmidt, M. D., & Eagly, A. H. (2002). Diminishing returns: The effects of income on the content stereotypes of wage earners. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1538–1545.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerpelman, J. L., & Schvaneveldt, P. L. (1999). Young adults’ anticipated identity importance of career, marital, and parental roles: Comparisons of men and women with different role balance orientations. Sex Roles, 41, 189–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lips, H. M. (1997). Sex & gender: An introduction (3rd ed.). Mountain View, California: Mayfield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorber, J. (1994). Paradoxes of gender. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lueptow, L. B., Garovich-Szabo, L., & Lueptow, M. B. (2001). Social change and the persistence of sex typing: 1974–1997. Social Forces, 1, 1–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maines, D. R., & Hardesty, M. J. (1987). Temporality and gender: Young adults’ career and family plans. Social Forces, 66, 102–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2002, March). Income of urban households by region. Retrieved November 6, 2005, from http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/statisticaldata/monthlydata/t20050920_402281925.htm

  • National Committee on Pay Equity. (2002). The wage gap over time: In real dollars, women see a continuing gap. Retrieved February 7, 2004, from http://www.pay-equity.org/infor-time.html

  • Novack, L. L., & Novack, D. R. (1996). Being female in the eighties and nineties: Conflicts between new opportunities and traditional expectations among White, middle class, heterosexual college women. Sex Roles, 35, 57–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearson, J. D., & Trent, J. S. (2004). 2003 keynote address: Communication, women, and leadership. Communication Studies, 55, 400–406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, S. (1998). Holding up half the sky: Women in China. Current History, 97, 279–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Press, J. E., & Townsley, E. (1998). Wives’ and husbands’ housework reporting: Gender, class, and social descirability. Gender & Society, 12, 188–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabin, C., Bressler, Y., & Prager, E. (1993). Caregiver burden and personal authority: Differentiation and connection in caring for an elderly parent. American Journal of Family Therapy, 21, 27–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, S. (1995). Women and political participation in China. Pacific Affairs, 68, 315–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shanghai Statistics Bureau. (2001, April). Report on the fifth census of Shanghai. Retrieved November 6, 2005, from http://www.stats-sh.gov.cn/2004shtj/pcgb/wpgb.htm

  • Shelton, B. A. (1992). Women, men and time: Gender differences in paid work, housework, and leisure. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shen, T. (1995, May/June). Starting with gender in hiring ads—A perspective on the current gender division of vocations in China. Chinese Education & Society, 28, 38–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stockman, M. (1994). Gender inequality and social structure in urban China. Sociology, 28, 759–777.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, L., & McKee, N. P. (2000). Studying universities—Gendered futures: Student visions of career and family on a college campus. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 31, 67–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tefft, S. (1996, July 12). Capitalism crushes China’s gender equality. Christian Science Monitor, pp. 1, 1C.

  • Tinklin, T., Croxford, L., Ducklin, A., & Frame, B. (2005). Gender and attitudes to work and family roles: The views of young people at the millennium. Gender and Education, 17, 129–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, Colorado: Westview.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M. (1997). Changes in masculine and feminine traits over time: A meta-analysis. Sex Roles, 36, 305–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valian, V. (2000). Why so slow: The advancement of women. Boston: MIT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, A., & Yang, J. (2005, May). Chinese female students have higher expectation on their schoolwork than that of males. Poster presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Society, Los Angeles, California.

  • Women of China English Monthly. (2001, December). The survey: Chinese women’s status in transformation . Retrieved June 30, 2005, from http://www.womenofchina.com.cn/womenofchina/web/issues/equality/Status.htm

  • Women of China English Monthly. (2005, March 9). High-ranking women: The road to political arena. Retrieved June 30, 2005, from http://www.womenofchina.com.cn/woc/ShowArticle.asp?ID=3358&BigClassId=7

  • Zhang, Q. F. (2004). Economic transition and new patterns of parent–adult child coresidence in urban China. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 1231–1245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Y., & Moore, K. E. (2005, May). Chinese and American student perceptions of desirable faculty and course characteristics. Poster presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Society, Los Angeles, California.

  • Zhou, L.-Y., Dawson, M. L., Herr, C. L., & Stukas, S. K. (2004). American and Chinese college students’ predictions of people’s occupations, housework responsibilities, and hobbies as a function of cultural and gender influences. Sex Roles, 50, 547–563.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, L.-Y., Herr, C., Dawson, M., & Stukas, S. (1999). Chinese and American college students’ responses to Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). Paper presented at the 70th annual meeting of Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, Illinois.

  • Zuo, J. (2003). From revolutionary comrades to gendered partners: Marital construction of breadwinning in post-Mao urban China. Journal of Family Issues, 24, 314–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

I thank Mr. Zheng Fan for his work of translating the Chinese version of the study materials back into English; Dr. Denise Wilbur and Ms. Nancy Pohlman for checking the equivalency of the Chinese and English versions; and Kandice Cardona, Hillary Sinnott, and Angela DeCraene for their help with data coding. Heartfelt thanks also go to Dr. Joan Chrisler and the manuscript reviewers for their encouragement and valuable suggestions.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ling-Yi Zhou.

Additional information

This study was supported partially by a summer mini-grant issued by the University of St. Francis in 2000.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Zhou, LY. American and Chinese College Students’ Anticipations of Their Postgraduate Education, Career, and Future Family Roles. Sex Roles 55, 95–110 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9063-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9063-6

Keywords

Navigation