Abstract
In three studies we investigated gender stereotypes of emotions among four ethnic groups in the U.S., using persons from these groups as informants about their own groups. European Americans’ reports of stereotypes were compared to those of African Americans (Study 1), Hispanic Americans (Study 2), and Asian Americans (Study 3). The examination of group differences was interpreted based on variations across ethnicities in norms concerning emotional expression and gender roles. Overall, gender stereotypes of emotion were evident among all ethnic groups studied, but European Americans’ gender stereotypes were the most gender differentiated. For example, European American stereotypes held that men express more pride than women do, but African Americans’ stereotypes of pride for men and women did not differ. Similarly, whereas among European Americans, women were stereotyped to express much more love than men do, the gender difference was smaller among Hispanic Americans and Asian Americans. These different norms may pose challenges for inter-cultural interactions, and they point to the importance of considering both gender and ethnicity simultaneously in the study of emotions.
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Notes
We recognize the difficulties surrounding the terms “ethnicity” and “race” and the rarity with which either occurs in a pure form. We use the term ethnicity because our focus is on the experiences of individuals who identify themselves with particular ethnic classifications.
Systematic differences between data collection sites emerged on ethnicity, gender, mother education, and age. These details are available from the authors.
In the planning of this study it was presumed that a European American female experimenter would collect data from both European and African American informants. However, the European American experimenter encountered a much higher refusal rate from African Americans than from European Americans. An African American female experimenter was added; she encountered a much lower refusal rate from African Americans than did the European American experimenter, and subsequently she collected all data from African American participants.
Although we asked participants their beliefs about emotional experience as well as expression, here we only report the results for emotional expression. Analyses of beliefs about experience are generally similar to those for expression, and are available from the authors.
Full analyses of participant gender effects are available from the authors.
Systematic differences between data collection sites emerged on ethnicity. These details are available from the authors.
Full analyses of participant gender effects are available from the authors.
There is considerable heterogeneity within all U.S. ethnic groups (including European Americans) in terms of country of origin, immigration, and acculturation; however, with our aim to collect data from community samples, we wanted to make the questionnaire as brief as possible. With this in mind, and with a concern that we would not have sufficient sample size to analyze specific variations within ethnicity, we excluded many details concerning ethnic background. That said, participants’ countries-of-origin were included in this study because it was of particular interest to one of the co-authors.
Systematic differences between data collection sites emerged on ethnicity, mother education, father education, and age. These details are available from the authors.
Interactions between age and gender of target emerged in analyses on ratings of fear, pride, sadness, and sympathy. Details regarding these effects are available from the authors.
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Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the National Science Foundation for the support of co-authors, Anaya and Schultz, through funding of the PREP (Psychology Research Experience Program) in the Department of Psychology at the University of Wisconsin. We would like to extend a special thanks to Ashby Plant, who was very instrumental in many aspects of this research.
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Durik, A.M., Hyde, J.S., Marks, A.C. et al. Ethnicity and Gender Stereotypes of Emotion. Sex Roles 54, 429–445 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9020-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9020-4