Abstract
This article describes the construction of the Conformity to Feminine Norms Inventory (CFNI), which was designed to assess women’s conformity to an array of feminine norms found in the dominant culture in the United States. In addition, we present four studies in which the psychometric properties of the CFNI were examined. In Study 1, factor analysis indicated that the CFNI is comprised of eight distinct factors labeled as Nice in Relationships, Thinness, Modesty, Domestic, Care for Children, Romantic Relationship, Sexual Fidelity, and Invest in Appearance. Results from Study 2 indicated that the CFNI has strong internal consistency estimates and differentiates college women from college men. In addition, Study 2 demonstrated that the CFNI Total score and subscale scores relate to Bem Sex Role Inventory and Feminist Identity Development Scale scores in theoretically consistent patterns. Study 3 indicated that the CFNI Total score and several of the subscales significantly and positively relate to scores on the Eating Disorder Inventory. Finally, Study 4 demonstrated that the CFNI Total score and subscale scores have high test-retest estimates for a 2–3 week period. The discussion focuses on potential uses of the CFNI, limitations to the study, and suggestions for future research.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bargad, A., & Hyde, J. S. (1991). A study of feminist identity development in women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15, 181–201.
Bartlett, M. S. (1950). Tests of significance in factor analysis. British Journal of Psychology, 3, 77–85.
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155–162.
Bem, S. L. (1981a). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88, 354–364.
Bem, S. L. (1981b). Bem Sex Role Inventory professional manual. Stanford, CA: Consulting Psychologists.
Betz, N. E. (1995). Gender-related individual differences variables: New concepts, methods, and findings. In D. J. Lubinski, & R. V. Dawis (Eds.), Assessing individual differences in human behavior: New concepts, methods, and findings (pp. 119–143). Palo Alto, CA: Davies-African American.
Brooks, G. R., & Good, G. E. (Eds.). (2001). The new handbook of psychotherapy and counseling with men: A comprehensive guide to settings, problems, and treatment approaches (Vol. 1 & 2). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Brown, L. S. (1986). Gender role analysis: A neglected component of psychological assessment. Psychotherapy, 23, 243–248.
Brown, L. S. (1998). Raising their voices: The politics of girls’ anger. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Carpenter, L. M. (2002). Gender and the meaning and experience of virginity loss in the contemporary United States. Gender and Society, 16, 345–365.
Chodorow, N. (1978). The reproduction of mothering. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Cialdini, R. B., & Trost, M. R. (1999). Social influence: Social norms, conformity, and compliance. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzy (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 151–192). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Crawford, M., & Unger, R. (2000). Women and gender: A feminist psychology. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Crowther, J. H., Lilly, R. S., Crawford, P. A., & Shepherd, K. L. (1992). The stability of the Eating Disorder Inventory. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 12, 97–101.
Deaux, K., & Lewis, L. L. (1984). The structure of gender stereotypes: Interrelatioships among components and gender labels. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 991–1004.
Demarest, J., & Langer, E. (1996). Perception of body shape by underweight, average, and overweight men and women. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 83, 569–570.
Deutsch, F. M., & Saxon, S. E. (1998). Traditional ideologies, nontraditional lives. Sex Roles, 38, 331–362.
Downing, N., & Roush, K. (1985). From passive acceptance to active commitment: A model of feminist identity development for women. Counseling Psychologist, 13, 695–709.
Eagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1984). Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 735–754.
Eberly, C. C., & Eberly, B. W. (1985). A review of the Eating Disorder Inventory. Journal of Counseling and Development, 64, 285.
Eisler, R. M. (1995). The relationship between masculine gender role stress and men’s health risk: The validation of the construct. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.), A new psychology of men (pp. 207–225). New York: Basic Books.
Fischer, A. R., Tokar, D. M., Mergl, M. M., Good, G. E., Hill, M. S., & Blum, S. A. (2000). Assessing women’s feminist identity development: Studies of convergent, discriminant, and structural validity. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 15–29.
Fiske, S. T., & Stevens, L. E. (1993). What’s so special about sex? Gender stereotyping and discrimination. In S. Oskamp & M. Costanzo (Eds.), Gender issues in contemporary society: Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 173–196). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Garner, D. M. (1991). Eating Disorder Inventory –2 manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional Eating Disorder Inventory for anorexia and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15–34.
Gilbert, L. A., & Scher, M. (1999). Gender and sex in counseling and psychotherapy. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Gillespie, B. L., & Eisler, R. M. (1992). Development of the Feminine Gender Role Stress Scale: A cognitive-behavioral measure of stress, appraisal, and coping for women. Behavior Modification, 16, 426–438.
Gillespie, R. (2003). Childfree and feminine: Understanding the gender identity of voluntarily childless women. Gender and Society, 17, 122–136.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Good, G. E., Gilbert, L. A., & Scher, M. (1990). Gender aware therapy: A synthesis of feminist therapy and knowledge about gender. Journal of Counseling and Development, 68, 376–380.
Green, P. E. (1976). Mathematical tools for applied multivariate analysis. New York: Academic.
Hurd, L. C. (1999). “We’re not old!”: Older women’s negotiation of aging and oldness. Journal of Aging Studies, 13, 419–439.
Jordon, J. V. (1992). The relational self: A new perspective for understanding women’s development. Contemporary Psychotherapy Review, 7, 56–71.
Kagan, J. (1964). American longitudinal research on psychological development. Child Development, 35, 1–32.
Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39, 31–36.
Kimmel, M. S. (2000). The gendered society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kohlberg, L. (1966). Moral education in the schools: A developmental view. School Review, 74, 1–30.
Lazur, R. F., & Majors, R. (1995). Men of color: Ethnocultural variations of male gender role strain. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.), The new psychology of men (pp. 337–358). New York: Basic Books.
Locksley, A., & Colten, M. E. (1979). Psychological androgyny: A case of mistaken identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1017–1031.
Low, K. G., Charanasomboon, S., Brown, C., Hiltunen, G., Long, K., Reinhalter, K., et al. (2003). Internalization of the thin ideal, weight, and body image concerns. Social Behavior and Personality, 31, 81–90.
Lytton, H., & Romney, D. M. (1991). Parents’ differential socialization of boys and girls: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 267–296.
Mahalik, J. R. (1999a). Interpersonal psychotherapy with men who experience gender role conflict. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 30, 5–13.
Mahalik, J. R. (1999b). Incorporating a gender role strain perspective in assessing and treating men’s cognitive distortions. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 30, 333–340.
Mahalik, J. R., Locke, B., Ludlow, L., Diemer, M., Scott, R. P. J., Gottfried, M., et al. (2003). Development of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 4, 3–25.
Matschiner, M., & Murnen, S. K. (1999). Hyperfeminity and influence. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 23, 631–642.
Mead, M. (1935). Sex and temperament in three primitive societies. New York: Morrow.
Meth, R. (1990). The road to masculinity. In R. Meth & R. Pasick (Eds.), Men in therapy: The challenge of change (pp. 3–34). New York: Guilford.
Mintz, L. B., & Betz, N. E. (1986). Sex differences in the nature, realism, and correlates of body image. Sex Roles, 15, 185–195.
Moradi, B., & Subich, L. M. (2002). Feminist identity development measures: Comparing the psychometrics of three instruments. Counseling Psychologist, 30, 66–86.
Moradi, B., Subich, L. M., & Phillips, J. C. (2002). Revisiting feminist identity development theory, research, and practice. Counseling Psychologist, 30, 6–43.
Morawski, J. G. (1985). The measurement of masculinity and femininity: Engendering categorical realities. Journal of Personality, 53, 196–223.
Payne, F. D. (1985). Review of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. In J. V. Mitchell, Jr. (Ed.), The ninth mental measurements yearbook (pp. 178–179). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
Pleck, J. H. (1981). The myth of masculinity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Pleck, J. H. (1995). The gender role strain paradigm: An update. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.), A new psychology of men (pp. 11–32). New York: Basic Books.
Powell, A. D., & Kahn, A. S. (1995). Racial differences in women’s desires to be thin International Journal of Eating Disorders, 17, 191–195.
Rickard, K. M. (1989). The relationship of self-monitored dating behavior to level of feminist identity on the Feminist Identity Scale. Sex Roles, 20, 213–226.
Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2001). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 743–762.
Sheehy, G. (1976). Passages: Predictable crises of adult life. New York: Bantam.
Spence, J. T. (1984). Masculinity, femininity, and gender-related traits: A conceptual analysis and critique of current research. In B. A. Maher & W. B. Maher (Eds.), Progress in experiemental research in personality (Vol. 13, pp. 1–97). New York: Academic.
Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1978). Masculinity and femininity: Their psychological dimensions, correlates and antecedents. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1980). Masculine instrumentality and feminine expressiveness: Their relationships with sex role attitudes and behaviors. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5, 147–163.
SPSS (1999). SPSS reference guide. Chicago: SPSS, Inc.
Thompson, E. H., & Pleck, J. H. (1995). Masculine ideologies: A review of research instrumentation on men and masculinities. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.), The new psychology of men (pp. 129–163). New York: Basic Books.
Tiggeman, M., & Pennington, B. (1996). The development of gender differences in body-size dissatisfaction. Australian Psychologist, 25, 306–313.
Tolman, D. L., & Porche, M. V. (2000). The Adolescent Feminine Ideology Scale: Development and validation of a new measure for girls. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 365–376.
Vasquez, M. J. T. (2003). The Counseling Psychologist: 2002 Presidential Address: Extending the ladder of opportunity—breaking through the colored glass ceiling. Counseling Psychologist, 31, 115–128.
Worell, J., & Todd, J. (1996). Development of the gendered self. In L. Smolak & M. P. Levine (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of eating disorders: Implications for research, prevention, and treatment (pp. 135–156). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Wyche, K. F. (2001). Sociocultural issues in counseling for women of color. In R. K. Unger (Ed.), Handbook of the psychology of women and gender (pp. 330–340). New York: Wiley.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mahalik, J.R., Morray, E.B., Coonerty-Femiano, A. et al. Development of the Conformity to Feminine Norms Inventory. Sex Roles 52, 417–435 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-3709-7
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-3709-7