Abstract
Booster effects have been reported in few prevention and treatment studies. However, as noted by Eyberg et al. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 5, 544–554 (1998), there has been no adequate random-assignment test of booster effects to address the basic question of whether boosters increase effects over initial intervention. The present study addresses this question by randomly assigning 196 families to a booster intervention (SAFEChildren II) and comparing effects 1 year after that intervention with families who had been assigned to the initial intervention only (SAFEChildren I). Both interventions were based in a developmental-ecological framework emphasizing family management of child-rearing and related challenges within an inner-city social ecology. The booster led to a relative improvement in child aggression and concentration in school for the overall sample, with additional benefit for high-risk groups in academic achievement, behavior, and family organization. The study also suggests need for more careful study of processes related to booster effects in prevention, including comparison of competing models.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
August, G.J., Realmuto, G.R., Hektner, J.M., & Bloomquist, M.L. (2001). An integrated components preventive intervention for aggressive elementary school children: The “Early Risers” program. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 614–626. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.69.4.614.
Botvin, G.J. (2000). Preventing drug abuse in schools: Social and competence enhancement approaches targeting individual-level etiologic factors. Addictive Behaviors, 25, 887–897. doi:10.1016/S0306-4603(00)00119-2.
Botvin, G.J., Baker, C., Filazzola, A.D., & Botvin, E.N. (1990). A cognitive behavioral approach to substance abuse prevention: One year follow-up. Addictive Behaviors, 15, 47–63. doi:10.1016/0306-4603(90)90006-J.
Bryk, A.S., & Raudenbush, S.W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
CTB/McGraw-Hill. (1985). California Achievement Test. Monterey: CTB/McGraw-Hill.
Dishion, T.J., & Kavanagh, K. (2000). A multilevel approach to family-centered prevention in schools: Process and outcome. Addictive Behaviors. Special Issue: Addictions 2000. Prevention of Substance Abuse Problems: Directions for the Next Millennium, 25, 899–911.
Djikstra, M., Mesters, I., DeVries, H., van Breukelen, G., & Parcel, G.S. (1999). Effectiveness of a social influence approach and boosters to smoking prevention. Health Education Research: Theory & Practice, 14, 791–802.
Eyberg, S.M., Edwards, D., Boggs, S.R., & Foote, R. (1998). Maintaining the treatment effects of parent training: The role of booster sessions and other maintenance strategies. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 5, 544–554.
Forgatch, M.S., & DeGarmo, D.S. (1999). Parenting through change: An effective parenting training program for single mothers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 711–724. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.67.5.711.
Gibbons, H., Elkin, W., Kraemer, G., et al. (1993). Some conceptual and statistical issues in analysis of longitudinal psychiatric data. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 739–750.
Gorman-Smith, D., Tolan, P.H., Zelli, A., & Huesmann, L.R. (1996). The relation of family functioning to violence among inner-city minority youth. Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 115–129. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.10.2.115.
Hawkins, J.D., Catalano, R.F., Kosterman, R., Abbott, R., & Hill, K. (1999). Preventing adolescent health-risk behaviors by strengthening protection during childhood. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 153, 226–234.
Hieronymous, N.A., Hoover, H.D., & Linquist, E.F. (1986). Iowa Tests of Basic Skills. Chicago: Riverside Publishing Company.
Kellam, S.G., & Rebok, G.W. (1992). Building developmental and etiological theory through epidemiologically based preventive intervention trials. In J. McCord & R. E. Tremblay (Eds.), Preventing antisocial behavior: Interventions from birth through adolescence (pp. 162–195). New York: Guilford.
Kellam, S.G., Brown, C.H., Rubin, B.R., & Ensminger, M.E. (1983). Paths leading to teenage psychiatric symptoms and substance use: Developmental epidemiological studies in Woodlawn. In S. B. Guze, F. J. Earls, & J. E. Barrett (Eds.), Childhood psychopathology and development (pp. 17–47). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lochman, J.E. (1992). Cognitive behavioral intervention with aggressive boys: Three-year follow-up and preventive effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 426–432. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.60.3.426.
McDonald, M.R., & Budd, K.S. (1983). “Booster shots” following didactic parent training: Effects of follow-up using graphic feedback and instructions. Behavior Modification, 7, 211–223. doi:10.1177/01454455830072006.
Metropolitan Area Child Study Research Group. (2002). A cognitive-ecological approach to preventing aggression in urban settings: Initial outcomes for high-risk children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 179–194. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.70.1.179.
Metropolitan Area Child Study Research Group. (2007). Changing the way children “think” about aggression: Social-cognitive effects of a preventive intervention for early elementary school urban children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 160–167.
Olds, D., Henderson Jr, C.R., Cole, R., Eckenrode, J., Kitzman, H., Luckey, D. et al. (1998). Long-term effects of nurse home visitation on children’s criminal and antisocial behavior: 15-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 280, 1238–1244. doi:10.1001/jama.280.14.1238.
Patterson, G.R. (1974). Retraining of aggressive boys by their parents: Review of recent literature and follow-up evaluation. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal, 19, 142–158.
Reid, J.B., Patterson, G.R., & Snyder, J. (2002). Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis and model for intervention. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Reynolds, C.R., & Kamphaus, R.W. (1998). BASC: Behavioral Assessment System for Children - Manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
Salvia, J., & Yesseldyke, J.E. (1991). Assessment. New York: Houghton-Mifflin.
Shadish, W.R., Hu, X., Glaser, R.R., Kownacki, R., & Wong, S. (1998). A method for exploring the effects of attrition in randomized experiments with dichotomous outcomes. Psychological Methods, 3, 3–22. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.3.1.3.
Stoolmiller, M., Eddy, J.M., & Reid, J.B. (2000). Detecting and describing preventive intervention effects in a universal school-based randomized trial targeting delinquent and violent behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 296–306. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.2.296.
Tolan, P., & Gorman-Smith, D. (2002). What violence prevention research can tell us about developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 713–729. doi:10.1017/S0954579402004042.
Tolan, P.H., Gorman-Smith, D., Huessman, L.R., & Zelli, A. (1997). Assessing family processes to explain risk for antisocial behavior and depression among urban youth. Psychological Assessment, 9, 212–223. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.9.3.212.
Tolan, P., Gorman-Smith, D., & Henry, D. (2004). Supporting families in a high-risk setting: Proximal effects of the SAFEChildren preventive intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 855–869. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.72.5.855.
Tolan, P., Szapocznik, J., & Sombrano, S. (Eds.) (2006). Preventing youth substance abuse: Science-based programs for children and adolescents. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Whisman, M.A. (1990). The efficacy of booster maintenance sessions in behavior therapy: Review and methodological critique. Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 155–170. doi:10.1016/0272-7358(90)90055-F.
Wolf, F.M. (1986). Meta-analysis: Quantitative methods for research synthesis. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Sage University Paper on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, 07–059.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Tolan, P.H., Gorman-Smith, D., Henry, D. et al. The Benefits of Booster Interventions: Evidence from a Family-Focused Prevention Program. Prev Sci 10, 287–297 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-009-0139-8
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-009-0139-8