Abstract
This study presents two case reports of altered states spontaneously occurring during meditation in two proficient practitioners. These states, known as fruition, are common within the Mahasi School of Theravada Buddhism, and are considered the culmination of contemplation-induced stages of consciousness. Here, electrophysiological measures of these experiences were measured, with the participant’s personal reports used to guide the neural analyzes. The preliminary results demonstrate an increase in global long-range gamma (25–45 Hz) synchronization during the fruition states, compared to the background meditation. The discrepancies and similarities with other neuroscientific studies of meditation-induced altered states are discussed. Albeit preliminary, the results presented here provide support for the possibility - previously raised by various authors - that long-range global gamma synchronization may offer an underlying mechanism for un-learning of habitual conditioning and mental patterns, possibly underpinning the neural correlate of the Buddhist concept of liberation. Finally, this pilot study highlights the utility of employing neuro-phenomenology, namely using first-person reports to guide neural analyzes, in the study of subtle human consciousness states.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aftanas, L. I., & Golocheikine, S. A. (2001). Human anterior and frontal midline theta and lower alpha reflect emotionally positive state and internalized attention: high-resolution EEG investigation of meditation. Neuroscience Letters, 310, 57–60.
Aftanas, L. I., & Golocheikine, S. A. (2002). Non-linear dynamic complexity of the human EEG during meditation. Neuroscience Letters, 330, 143–146.
Aftanas, L., & Golocheikine, S. A. (2005). Impact of regular meditation practice on EEG activity at rest and during evoked negative emotions. International Journal of Neuroscience, 115, 893–909.
Alexander, C. N., Boyer, R. W., & Alexander, V. K. (1987). Higher states of consciousness in the vedic psychology of maharishi mahesh yogi: a theoretical introduction and research review. Modern Science and Vedic Science, 1(1), 89–126.
Ataria, Y. (2014). Traumatic and mystical experiences: the dark nights of the soul. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 1–26. doi:10.1177/0022167814563143.
Badawi, K., Wallace, R., Orme-Johnson, D., & Rouzere, A. (1984). Electrophysiologic characteristics of respiratory suspension periods occurring during the practice of the transcendental meditation program. Psychosomatic Medicine, 46(3), 267–276.
Bai, O., Rathi, V., Lin, P., Huang, D., Battapady, H., Fei, D.-Y., et al. (2011). Prediction of human voluntary movement before it occurs. Clinical Neurophysiology, 122, 364–372.
Baijal, S., & Srinivasan, N. (2010). Theta activity and meditative states: spectral changes during concentrative meditation. Cognitive Processing, 11(1), 31–38.
Banquet, J.-P. (1973). Spectral analysis of the EEG in meditation. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 35(2), 143–151.
Berkovich-Ohana, A., Glicksohn, J., & Goldstein, A. (2012). Mindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activity – implications for the default mode network, self-reference and attention. Clinical Neurophysiology, 123, 700–710.
Berkovich-Ohana, A., Dor-Ziderman, Y., Glicksohn, J., & Goldstein, A. (2013a). Alterations in the sense of time, space and body in the Mindfulness-trained brain: a neurophenomenologically-guided MEG study. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 912. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00912.
Berkovich-Ohana, A., Glicksohn, J., & Goldstein, A. (2013b). Studying the default mode and its mindfulness-induced changes using EEG functional connectivity. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5, 1–9. doi:10.1093/scan/nst153.
Bhattacharya, J., & Petsche, H. (2001). Enhanced phase synchrony in the electroencephalograph band for musicians while listening to music. Physical Review E, 64(1), 12902.
Blanke, O., Landis, T., Spinelli, L., & Seeck, M. (2004). Out-of-body experience and autoscopy of neurological origin. Brain, 127(2), 243–258.
Bodhi, B. (2003). A comprehensive manual of abhidhamma: The abhidhammattha sangaha of acariya anuruddha. Washington: Pariyatti.
Cacioppo, J. T., Tassinary, L. G., & Fridlund, A. J. (1990). The skeletomotor system. In L. Tassinary (Ed.), Principles of psychophysiology (pp. 325–384). New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Cahn, B. R., & Polich, J. (2006). Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 180–211.
Cahn, B. R., Delorme, A., & Polich, J. (2010). Occipital gamma activation during Vipassana meditation. Cognitive Processing, 11, 39–56.
Chung, S.-C., Brooks, M. M., Rai, M., Balk, J. L., & Rai, S. (2012). Effect of sahaja yoga meditation on quality of life, anxiety, and blood pressure control. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 18(6), 589–596.
Coomaraswamy, A. K. (1918). The dance of śiva: fourteen Indian essays (Text edition and layout by Jampa Namgyal). New York: Sunwise Turn.
D’ Aquili, E., & Newberg, A. (1999). The mystical mind: Probing the biology of religious experience. Minneapolis: Fortress press.
Damasio, A. R. (1990). Synchronous activation in multiple cortical regions: a mechanism for recall. Seminars in Neuroscience, 2, 287–296.
Dietrich, A. (2003). Functional neuroanatomy of altered states of consciousness: the transient hypofrontality hypothesis. Consciousness and Cognition, 12(2), 231–256.
Dor-Ziderman, Y., Berkovich-Ohana, A., Glicksohn, J., & Goldstein, A. (2013). Mindfulness-induced selflessness: a MEG neurophenomenological study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 582. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00582.
Dreyfus, G., & Thompson, E. (2007). Asian perspectives: Indian theories of mind. In E. Thompson, P. D. Zelazo, & M. Moscovitch (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of consciousness (pp. 89–114). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Engel, A. K., Fries, P., & Singer, W. (2001). Dynamic predictions: oscillations and synchrony in top–down processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2(10), 704–716.
Engström, M., & Söderfeldt, B. (2010). Brain activation during compassion meditation: a case study. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16, 597–599.
Farrow, J. T., & Hebert, J. R. (1982). Breath suspension during the transcendental meditation technique. Psychosomatic Medicine, 44(2), 133–153.
Fell, J., Axmacher, N., & Haupt, S. (2010). From alpha to gamma: electrophysiological correlates of meditation-related states of consciousness. Medical Hypotheses, 75(2), 218–224.
Ferree, T. C., Luu, P., Russell, G. S., & Tucker, D. M. (2001). Scalp electrode impedance, infection risk, and EEG data quality. Clinical Neurophysiology, 112, 536–544.
Fingelkurts, A. A., & Fingelkurts, A. A. (2009). Is our brain hardwired to produce God, or is our brain hardwired to perceive God? A systematic review on the role of the brain in mediating religious experience. Cognitive Processing, 10(4), 293–326.
Florian, G., Andrew, C., & Pfurtscheller, G. (1998). Do changes in coherence always reflect changes in functional coupling? Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 106(1), 87–91.
Fries, P. (2005). A mechanism for cognitive dynamics: neuronal communication through neuronal coherence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(10), 474–480.
Fries, P., Roelfsema, P. R., Engel, A. K., Konig, P., & Singer, W. (1997). Synchronization of oscillatory responses in visual cortex correlates with perception in interocular rivalry. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 94(23), 12699–12704.
Friston, K. J. (1997). Transients, metastability, and neuronal dynamics. NeuroImage, 5, 164–171.
Gombrich, R. F. (1995). Theravada Buddhism. London, New York: Routledge.
Hebert, R., & Lehmann, D. (1977). Theta bursts: an EEG pattern in normal subjects practicing the transcendental meditation technique. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 42, 397–405.
Hebert, R., Lehmann, D., Tan, G., Travis, F., & Arenander, A. (2005). Enhanced EEG alpha time-domain phase synchrony during transcendental meditation: implications for cortical integration theory. Signal Processing, 85, 2213–2232.
Herrmann, C. S., & Demiralp, T. (2005). Human EEG gamma oscillations in neuropsychiatric disorders. Clinical Neurophysiology, 116, 2719–2733.
Hood, R. W. (2000). The common core thesis in the study of mysticism. In P. McNamara (Ed.), Where God AND Science Meet (Vol. 3, pp. 119–138). Westport, Connecticut, London: Praeger.
Hunt, H. T. (2007). “Dark nights of the soul”: phenomenology and neurocognition of spiritual suffering in mysticism and psychosis. Review of General Psychology, 11(3), 209–234.
James, W. (1958). The varieties of religious experience. New York: The Modern Library.
Karunadasa, Y. (1994). Nibbanic expereince: a non-transcendental interpretation. Journal of Buddhist Studies, 4, 1–4.
Klostermaier, K. K. (2007). A survey of Hinduism (Third Edition). State University of New York Press.
LaBerge, S. (1990). Lucid dreaming: Psychophysiological studies of consciousness during REM sleep. In R. R. Bootzen, J. F. Kihlstrom, & D. Schachter (Eds.), Sleep and cognition (pp. 109–126). Washington: American Psychological Association.
Lehmann, D., Faber, P., Achermenn, P., Jeanmonod, D., Gianotti, L. R., & Pizzagalli, D. (2001). Brain sources of EEG gamma frequency during volitionally meditation-induced, altered states of consciousness, and experience of the self. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 108, 111–121.
Lehmann, D., Faber, P. L., Tei, S., Pascual-Marqui, R. D., Milz, P., & Kochi, K. (2012). Reduced functional connectivity between cortical sources in five meditation traditions detected with lagged coherence using EEG tomography. NeuroImage, 60, 1574–1586.
Lutz, A., & Thompson, E. (2003). Neurophenomenology integrating subjective experience and brain dynamics in the neuroscience of consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 10(9-10), 31–52.
Lutz, A., Greischar, L. L., Rawlings, N. B., Ricard, M., & Davidson, R. J. (2004). Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 16369–16373.
Martinez-Conde, S., Macknik, S. L., & Hubel, D. H. (2004). The role of fixational eye movements in visual perception. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5, 229–240.
Mormann, F., Lehnertz, K., David, P., & Elger, C. (2000). Mean phase coherence as a measure for phase synchronization and its application to the EEG of epilepsy patients. Physica D, 144, 358–369.
Nanarama, M. S. (1983). The seven stages of purification and the insight knowledges. Kandy: Buddhist publication society.
Orme-Johnson, D. W., & Haynes, C. T. (1981). EEG phase coherence, pure consciousness, creativity, and TM—Sidhi experiences. International Journal of Neuroscience, 13(4), 211–217.
Ott, U. (2007). Time experience during mystical states. Athens: International Conference “Science–Religion Interaction in the 21th Century”.
Panjwani, U., Selvamurthy, W., Singh, S. H., Gupta, H. L., Mukhopadhyay, S., & Thakur, L. (2000). Effect of Sahaja yoga meditation on auditory evoked potentials (AEP) and visual contrast sensitivity (VCS) in epileptics. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 25(1), 1–12.
Pereda, E., Quiroga, R. Q., & Bhattacharya, J. (2005). Nonlinear multivariate analysis of neurophysiological signals. Progress in Neurobiology, 77(1-2), 1–37.
Perrin, F., Pernier, J., Bertrand, O., & Echallier, J. F. (1989). Spherical splines for scalp potential and current density mapping. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 72, 184–187.
Petitmengin, C., Navarro, V., & Le Van Quyen, M. (2007). Anticipating seizure: pre-reflective experience at the center of neuro-phenomenology. Consciousness and Cognition, 16, 746–764.
Reiterer, S., Pereda, E., & Bhattacharya, J. (2009). Measuring second language proficiency with EEG synchronization: how functional cortical networks and hemispheric involvement differ as a function of proficiency level in second language speakers. Second Language Research, 25(1), 77–106.
Sayadaw, M. (1964). The progress of insight: A treatise on satipatthana meditation. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Schutter, D. J., Kammers, M. P., Enter, D., & Van Honk, J. (2006). A case of illusory own-body perceptions after transcranial magnetic stimulation of the cerebellum. The Cerebellum, 5, 238–240.
Sharp, P. (2011). Buddhist enlightenment and the destruction of attractor networks: a neuroscientific speculation on the Buddhist path from everyday consciousness to Buddha-Awakening. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 18, 1–37.
Singer, W. (1993). Synchronization of cortical activity and its putative role in information processing and learning. Annual Review of Physiology, 55(1), 349–374.
Stuckey, D. E., Lawson, R., & Luna, L. E. (2005). EEG gamma coherence and other correlates of subjective reports during ayahuasca experiences. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 37(2), 163–178.
Thera, N. (1965). Abhidhamma studies: Buddhist explorations of consciousness and time. Massachusetts: Wisdom Publications.
Tononi, G. (2008). Consciousness as integrated information: a provisional manifesto. The Biological Bulletin, 215, 216–242.
Travis, F. (2001). Autonomic and EEG patterns distinguish transcending from other experiences during transcendental meditation practice. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 42, 1–9.
Travis, F., & Arenander, A. (2006). Cross-sectional and longitudinal study of effects of transcendental meditation practice on interhemispheric frontal asymmetry and frontal coherence. International Journal of Neuroscience, 116(12), 1519–1538.
Travis, F., & Wallace, R. K. (1999). Autonomic and EEG patterns during eyes-closed rest and transcendental meditation (TM) practice: the basis for a neural model of TM practice. Consciousness and Cognition, 8, 302–318.
Travis, F., Tecce, J., Arenander, A., & Wallace, R. K. (2002). Patterns of EEG coherence, power, and contingent negative variation characterize the integration of transcendental and waking states. Biological Psychology, 61(3), 293–319.
Travis, F., Haaga, D. A. F., Hagelin, J., Tanner, M., Arenander, A., Nidich, S., et al. (2010). A self-referential default brain state: patterns of coherence, power, and eLORETA sources during eyes-closed rest and transcendental meditation practice. Cognitive Processing, 11(1), 21–30.
Varela, F. J. (1996). Neurophenomenology: a methodological remedy for the hard problem. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 3(4), 330–349.
Varela, F. J., & Thompson, E. (2003). Neural synchrony and the unity of mind: A neurophenomenological perspective. In A. Cleeremans (Ed.), The unity of consciousness; Binding, integration, and dissociation (pp. 266–287). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Varela, F., Lachaux, J. P., Rodriguez, E., & Martinerie, J. (2001). The brainweb: phase synchronization and large-scale integration. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2(4), 229–239.
Vialatte, F. B., Bakardjian, H., Prasad, R., & Cichocki, A. (2009). EEG paroxysmal gamma waves during Bhramari Pranayama: a yoga breathing technique. Consciousness and Cognition, 18(4), 977–988.
Whitham, E. M., Pope, K. J., Fitzgibbon, S. P., Lewis, T., Clark, C. R., Loveless, S., et al. (2007). Scalp electrical recording during paralysis: quantitative evidence that EEG frequencies above 20 Hz are contaminated by EMG. Clinical Neurophysiology, 118, 1877–1888.
Williams, P., & Tribe, A. (2002). Buddhist thought: A complete introduction to the Indian tradition. London, New York: Routledge.
Yuval-Greenberg, S., & Deouell, L. Y. (2009). The broadband-transient induced gamma-band response in scalp EEG reflects the execution of saccades. Brain Topography, 22, 3–6.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Mind and Life Institute, Francisco J. Varela Research Award 2012-Varela-Berkovich, and by a grant from the Bial Foundation (27/10). I deeply thank the Newman Society as well as Tovana Insight Meditation Society and their members for collaborating and enabling this research.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Berkovich-Ohana, A. A case study of a meditation-induced altered state: increased overall gamma synchronization. Phenom Cogn Sci 16, 91–106 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-015-9435-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-015-9435-x