Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

A Comparison of Structural Brain Imaging Findings in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

  • Review
  • Published:
Neuropsychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

ASD and ADHD are regarded as distinct disorders in the current DSM-5. However, recent research and the RDoC initiative are recognizing considerable overlap in the clinical presentation of ASD, ADHD, and other neurodevelopmental disorders. In spite of numerous neuroimaging findings in ASD and ADHD, the extent to which either of the above views are supported remains equivocal. Here we compare structural MRI and DTI literature in ASD and ADHD. Our main findings reveal both distinct and shared neural features. Distinct expressions were in total brain volume (ASD: increased volume, ADHD: decreased volume), amygdala (ASD: overgrowth, ADHD: normal), and internal capsule (ASD: unclear, ADHD: reduced FA in DTI). Considerable overlap was noted in the corpus callosum and cerebellum (lower volume in structural MRI and decreased FA in DTI), and superior longitudinal fasciculus (reduced FA in DTI). In addition, we identify brain regions which have not been studied in depth and require more research. We discuss relationships between brain features and symptomatology. We conclude by addressing limitations of current neuroimaging research and offer approaches that account for clinical heterogeneity to better distinguish brain-behavior relationships.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adisetiyo, V., Tabesh, A., Di Martino, A., Falangola, M. F., Castellanos, F. X., Jensen, J. H., et al. (2014). Attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder without comorbidity is associated with distinct atypical patterns of cerebral microstructural development. Human Brain Mapping, 35(5), 2148–2162.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1998). The human amygdala in social judgment. Nature, 393(6684), 470–474.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, A. L., Lee, J. E., Lazar, M., Boudos, R., DuBray, M. B., Oakes, T. R., et al. (2007). Diffusion tensor imaging of the corpus callosum in Autism. NeuroImage, 34(1), 61–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, G., Müller, R.-A., & Courchesne, E. (2004). Cerebellar function in autism: functional magnetic resonance image activation during a simple motor task. Biological Psychiatry, 56(4), 269–278.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aoki, Y., Kasai, K., & Yamasue, H. (2012). Age-related change in brain metabolite abnormalities in autism: a meta-analysis of proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies. Translational Psychiatry, 2(1), e69.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aoki, Y., Abe, O., Nippashi, Y., & Yamasue, H. (2013). Comparison of white matter integrity between autism spectrum disorder subjects and typically developing individuals: a meta-analysis of diffusion tensor imaging tractography studies. Molecular Autism, 4(1), 25.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ara, S., & Islam, M. (2010). White fiber dissection of brain; the internal capsule: a cadaveric study. Turkish Neurosurgery, 20(3), 314–322.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arnsten, A. F. (2009). The emerging neurobiology of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: the key role of the prefrontal association cortex. The Journal of Pediatrics, 154(5), I.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ashtari, M., Kumra, S., Bhaskar, S. L., Clarke, T., Thaden, E., Cervellione, K. L., et al. (2005). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a preliminary diffusion tensor imaging study. Biological Psychiatry, 57(5), 448–455.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Axer, H., & Keyserlingk, D. G. (2000). Mapping of fiber orientation in human internal capsule by means of polarized light and confocal scanning laser microscopy. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 94(2), 165–175.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnea-Goraly, N., Kwon, H., Menon, V., Eliez, S., Lotspeich, L., & Reiss, A. L. (2004). White matter structure in autism: preliminary evidence from diffusion tensor imaging. Biological Psychiatry, 55(3), 323–326.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnea-Goraly, N., Lotspeich, L. J., & Reiss, A. L. (2010). Similar white matter aberrations in children with autism and their unaffected siblings: a diffusion tensor imaging study using tract-based spatial statistics. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(10), 1052–1060.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnea-Goraly, N., Frazier, T. W., Piacenza, L., Minshew, N. J., Keshavan, M. S., Reiss, A. L., et al. (2014). A preliminary longitudinal volumetric MRI study of amygdala and hippocampal volumes in autism. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 48, 124–128.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Ring, H. A., Bullmore, E. T., Wheelwright, S., Ashwin, C., & Williams, S. (2000). The amygdala theory of autism. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 24(3), 355–364.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bashat, D. B., Kronfeld-Duenias, V., Zachor, D. A., Ekstein, P. M., Hendler, T., Tarrasch, R., et al. (2007). Accelerated maturation of white matter in young children with autism: a high b value DWI study. NeuroImage, 37(1), 40–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Batty, M. J., Liddle, E. B., Pitiot, A., Toro, R., Groom, M. J., Scerif, G., et al. (2010). Cortical gray matter in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a structural magnetic resonance imaging study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(3), 229–238.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bechtel, N., Kobel, M., Penner, I.-K., Klarhöfer, M., Scheffler, K., Opwis, K., et al. (2009). Decreased fractional anisotropy in the middle cerebellar peduncle in children with epilepsy and/or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a preliminary study. Epilepsy & Behavior, 15(3), 294–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berquin, P., Giedd, J., Jacobsen, L., Hamburger, S., Krain, A., Rapoport, J., et al. (1998). Cerebellum in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder A morphometric MRI study. Neurology, 50(4), 1087–1093.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bledsoe, J. C., Semrud-Clikeman, M., & Pliszka, S. R. (2011). Neuroanatomical and neuropsychological correlates of the cerebellum in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder–combined type. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 50(6), 593–601.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boddaert, N., Chabane, N., Gervais, H., Good, C., Bourgeois, M., Plumet, M., et al. (2004). Superior temporal sulcus anatomical abnormalities in childhood autism: a voxel-based morphometry MRI study. NeuroImage, 23(1), 364–369.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brieber, S., Neufang, S., Bruning, N., Kamp‐Becker, I., Remschmidt, H., Herpertz‐Dahlmann, B., et al. (2007). Structural brain abnormalities in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and patients with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(12), 1251–1258.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brun, C. C., Nicolson, R., Leporé, N., Chou, Y. Y., Vidal, C. N., DeVito, T. J., et al. (2009). Mapping brain abnormalities in boys with autism. Human Brain Mapping, 30(12), 3887–3900.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bush, G. (2011). Cingulate, frontal, and parietal cortical dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 69(12), 1160–1167.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cao, Q., Sun, L., Gong, G., Lv, Y., Cao, X., Shuai, L., et al. (2010). The macrostructural and microstructural abnormalities of corpus callosum in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a combined morphometric and diffusion tensor MRI study. Brain Research, 1310, 172–180.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carper, R. A., & Courchesne, E. (2000). Inverse correlation between frontal lobe and cerebellum sizes in children with autism. Brain, 123(4), 836–844.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carper, R. A., & Courchesne, E. (2005). Localized enlargement of the frontal cortex in early autism. Biological Psychiatry, 57(2), 126–133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carper, R. A., Moses, P., Tigue, Z. D., & Courchesne, E. (2002). Cerebral lobes in autism: early hyperplasia and abnormal age effects. NeuroImage, 16(4), 1038–1051.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cascio, C., Styner, M., Smith, R. G., Poe, M. D., Gerig, G., Hazlett, H. C., et al. (2006). Reduced relationship to cortical white matter volume revealed by tractography-based segmentation of the corpus callosum in young children with developmental delay. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(12), 2157–2163.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., & Tannock, R. (2002). Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the search for endophenotypes. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3(8), 617–628.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., Giedd, J. N., Marsh, W. L., Hamburger, S. D., Vaituzis, A. C., Dickstein, D. P., et al. (1996). Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53(7), 607–616.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., Lee, P. P., Sharp, W., Jeffries, N. O., Greenstein, D. K., Clasen, L. S., et al. (2002). Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA, 288(14), 1740–1748.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Catani, M., Jones, D. K., Daly, E., Embiricos, N., Deeley, Q., Pugliese, L., et al. (2008). Altered cerebellar feedback projections in Asperger syndrome. NeuroImage, 41(4), 1184–1191.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, Y., Chou, K.-H., Chen, I.-Y., Fan, Y.-T., Decety, J., & Lin, C.-P. (2010). Atypical development of white matter microstructure in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. NeuroImage, 50(3), 873–882.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Christakou, A., Murphy, C., Chantiluke, K., Cubillo, A., Smith, A., Giampietro, V., et al. (2013). Disorder-specific functional abnormalities during sustained attention in youth with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and with autism. Molecular Psychiatry, 18(2), 236–244.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chung, M. K., Robbins, S. M., Dalton, K. M., Davidson, R. J., Alexander, A. L., & Evans, A. C. (2005). Cortical thickness analysis in autism with heat kernel smoothing. NeuroImage, 25(4), 1256–1265.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cortese, S., Imperati, D., Zhou, J., Proal, E., Klein, R. G., Mannuzza, S., et al. (2013). White matter alterations at 33-year follow-up in adults with childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 74(8), 591–598.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Courchesne, E., Carper, R., & Akshoomoff, N. (2003). Evidence of brain overgrowth in the first year of life in autism. JAMA, 290(3), 337–344.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Courchesne, E., Pierce, K., Schumann, C. M., Redcay, E., Buckwalter, J. A., Kennedy, D. P., et al. (2007). Mapping early brain development in autism. Neuron, 56(2), 399–413.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Courchesne, E., Mouton, P. R., Calhoun, M. E., Semendeferi, K., Ahrens-Barbeau, C., Hallet, M. J., et al. (2011). Neuron number and size in prefrontal cortex of children with autism. JAMA, 306(18), 2001–2010.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, M. (1992). The role of the amygdala in fear and anxiety. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 15(1), 353–375.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dennis, M., Francis, D. J., Cirino, P. T., Schachar, R., Barnes, M. A., & Fletcher, J. M. (2009). Why IQ is not a covariate in cognitive studies of neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15(03), 331–343.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Di Martino, A., Kelly, C., Grzadzinski, R., Zuo, X.-N., Mennes, M., Mairena, M. A., et al. (2011). Aberrant striatal functional connectivity in children with autism. Biological Psychiatry, 69(9), 847–856.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Di Martino, A., Zuo, X.-N., Kelly, C., Grzadzinski, R., Mennes, M., Schvarcz, A., et al. (2013). Shared and distinct intrinsic functional network centrality in autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 74(8), 623–632.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dictionary of Biological Psychology (2003). London: Routledge.

  • Dramsdahl, M., Westerhausen, R., Haavik, J., Hugdahl, K., & Plessen, K. J. (2012). Adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder—a diffusion-tensor imaging study of the corpus callosum. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 201(2), 168–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Durston, S., Pol, H. E. H., Schnack, H. G., Buitelaar, J. K., Steenhuis, M. P., Minderaa, R. B., et al. (2004). Magnetic resonance imaging of boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and their unaffected siblings. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(3), 332–340.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ecker, C., Rocha-Rego, V., Johnston, P., Mourao-Miranda, J., Marquand, A., Daly, E. M., et al. (2010). Investigating the predictive value of whole-brain structural MR scans in autism: a pattern classification approach. NeuroImage, 49(1), 44–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ecker, C., Ginestet, C., Feng, Y., Johnston, P., Lombardo, M. V., Lai, M.-C., et al. (2013). Brain surface anatomy in adults with autism: the relationship between surface area, cortical thickness, and autistic symptoms. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(1), 59–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison-Wright, I., Ellison-Wright, Z., & Bullmore, E. (2008). Structural brain change in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder identified by meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 8(1), 51.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Estes, A., Shaw, D. W., Sparks, B. F., Friedman, S., Giedd, J. N., Dawson, G., et al. (2011). Basal ganglia morphometry and repetitive behavior in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 4(3), 212–220.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, D. W., Lewis, M. D., & Iobst, E. (2004). The role of the orbitofrontal cortex in normally developing compulsive-like behaviors and obsessive–compulsive disorder. Brain and Cognition, 55(1), 220–234.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, D. W., Lazar, S. M., Boomer, K., Mitchel, A. D., Michael, A. M., & Moore, G. J. (2014). Social cognition and brain morphology: implications for developmental brain dysfunction. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 9(2), 264–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fatemi, S. H., Aldinger, K. A., Ashwood, P., Bauman, M. L., Blaha, C. D., Blatt, G. J., et al. (2012). Consensus paper: pathological role of the cerebellum in autism. The Cerebellum, 11(3), 777–807.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, T. W., & Hardan, A. Y. (2009). A meta-analysis of the corpus callosum in autism. Biological Psychiatry, 66(10), 935–941.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, T. W., Keshavan, M. S., Minshew, N. J., & Hardan, A. Y. (2012). A two-year longitudinal MRI study of the corpus callosum in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(11), 2312–2322.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freitag, C. M., Luders, E., Hulst, H. E., Narr, K. L., Thompson, P. M., Toga, A. W., et al. (2009). Total brain volume and corpus callosum size in medication-naive adolescents and young adults with autism spectrum disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 66(4), 316–319.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frodl, T., & Skokauskas, N. (2012). Meta‐analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 125(2), 114–126.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frodl, T., Stauber, J., Schaaff, N., Koutsouleris, N., Scheuerecker, J., Ewers, M., et al. (2010). Amygdala reduction in patients with ADHD compared with major depression and healthy volunteers. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 121(2), 111–118.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbard, C. R., Ren, J., Seunarine, K. K., Clayden, J. D., Skuse, D. H., & Clark, C. A. (2013). White matter microstructure correlates with autism trait severity in a combined clinical–control sample of high-functioning adults. NeuroImage, 3, 106–114.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg, C. (2010). The ESSENCE in child psychiatry: early symptomatic syndromes eliciting neurodevelopmental clinical examinations. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31(6), 1543–1551.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg, C., & Fernell, E. (2014). Autism plus versus autism pure. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(12), 3274–3276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg, C., Fernell, E., & Minnis, H. (2013). Early symptomatic syndromes eliciting neurodevelopmental clinical examinations. The Scientific World Journal, 2013.

  • Gilliam, M., Stockman, M., Malek, M., Sharp, W., Greenstein, D., Lalonde, F., et al. (2011). Developmental trajectories of the corpus callosum in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 69(9), 839–846.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Girgis, R. R., Minshew, N. J., Melhem, N. M., Nutche, J. J., Keshavan, M. S., & Hardan, A. Y. (2007). Volumetric alterations of the orbitofrontal cortex in autism. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 31(1), 41–45.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Groen, W. B., Buitelaar, J. K., Van Der Gaag, R. J., & Zwiers, M. P. (2011). Pervasive microstructural abnormalities in autism: a DTI study. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 36(1), 32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grzadzinski, R., Di Martino, A., Brady, E., Mairena, M. A., O’Neale, M., Petkova, E., et al. (2011). Examining autistic traits in children with ADHD: does the autism spectrum extend to ADHD? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(9), 1178–1191.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haar, S., Berman, S., Behrmann, M., & Dinstein, I. (2014). Anatomical abnormalities in autism? Cerebral Cortex, bhu242.

  • Hadjikhani, N., Joseph, R. M., Snyder, J., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2006). Anatomical differences in the mirror neuron system and social cognition network in autism. Cerebral Cortex, 16(9), 1276–1282.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, L. S., Levitt, J. G., O’Neill, J., Alger, J. R., Luders, E., Phillips, O. R., et al. (2008). Reduced white matter integrity in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuroreport, 19(17), 1705.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hardan, A., Minshew, N. J., & Keshavan, M. S. (2000). Corpus callosum size in autism. Neurology, 55(7), 1033–1036.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hardan, A., Muddasani, S., Vemulapalli, M., Keshavan, M. S., & Minshew, N. J. (2006). An MRI study of increased cortical thickness in autism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(7), 1290–1292.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hardan, A., Libove, R., Keshavan, M., Melhem, N., & Minshew, N. (2009). A preliminary longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study of brain volume and cortical thickness in autism. Biological Psychiatry, 66(4), 320–326.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hazlett, H. C., Poe, M., Gerig, G., Smith, R. G., Provenzale, J., Ross, A., et al. (2005). Magnetic resonance imaging and head circumference study of brain size in autism: birth through age 2 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(12), 1366–1376.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hazlett, H. C., Poe, M. D., Gerig, G., Styner, M., Chappell, C., Smith, R. G., et al. (2011). Early brain overgrowth in autism associated with an increase in cortical surface area before age 2 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(5), 467–476.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herbert, M. R., Ziegler, D. A., Makris, N., Filipek, P. A., Kemper, T. L., Normandin, J. J., et al. (2004). Localization of white matter volume increase in autism and developmental language disorder. Annals of Neurology, 55(4), 530–540.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, D. E., Yeo, R. A., Campbell, R. A., Hart, B., Vigil, J., & Brooks, W. (2003). Magnetic resonance imaging correlates of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Neuropsychology, 17(3), 496.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoekzema, E., Carmona, S., Ramos-Quiroga, J. A., Fernández, V. R., Picado, M., Bosch, R., et al. (2012). Laminar thickness alterations in the fronto-parietal cortical mantle of patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

  • Hollander, E., Anagnostou, E., Chaplin, W., Esposito, K., Haznedar, M. M., Licalzi, E., et al. (2005). Striatal volume on magnetic resonance imaging and repetitive behaviors in autism. Biological Psychiatry, 58(3), 226–232.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hong, S.-B., Zalesky, A., Fornito, A., Park, S., Yang, Y.-H., Park, M.-H., et al. (2014). Connectomic disturbances in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a whole-brain tractography analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 76(8), 656–663.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoppenbrouwers, M., Vandermosten, M., & Boets, B. (2014). Autism as a disconnection syndrome: a qualitative and quantitative review of diffusion tensor imaging studies. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8(4), 387–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hua, X., Thompson, P. M., Leow, A. D., Madsen, S. K., Caplan, R., Alger, J. R., et al. (2013). Brain growth rate abnormalities visualized in adolescents with autism. Human Brain Mapping, 34(2), 425–436.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ikuta, T., Shafritz, K. M., Bregman, J., Peters, B. D., Gruner, P., Malhotra, A. K., et al. (2014). Abnormal cingulum bundle development in autism: a probabilistic tractography study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 221(1), 63–68.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jiao, Y., Chen, R., Ke, X., Chu, K., Lu, Z., & Herskovits, E. H. (2010). Predictive models of autism spectrum disorder based on brain regional cortical thickness. NeuroImage, 50(2), 589–599.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jou, R., Mateljevic, N., Kaiser, M., Sugrue, D., Volkmar, F., & Pelphrey, K. (2011a). Structural neural phenotype of autism: preliminary evidence from a diffusion tensor imaging study using tract-based spatial statistics. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 32(9), 1607–1613.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jou, R. J., Jackowski, A. P., Papademetris, X., Rajeevan, N., Staib, L. H., & Volkmar, F. R. (2011b). Diffusion tensor imaging in autism spectrum disorders: preliminary evidence of abnormal neural connectivity. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 45(2), 153–162.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keller, T. A., Kana, R. K., & Just, M. A. (2007). A developmental study of the structural integrity of white matter in autism. Neuroreport, 18(1), 23–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koldewyn, K., Yendiki, A., Weigelt, S., Gweon, H., Julian, J., Richardson, H., et al. (2014). Differences in the right inferior longitudinal fasciculus but no general disruption of white matter tracts in children with autism spectrum disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(5), 1981–1986.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, A., Sundaram, S. K., Sivaswamy, L., Behen, M. E., Makki, M. I., Ager, J., et al. (2010). Alterations in frontal lobe tracts and corpus callosum in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Cerebral Cortex, 20(9), 2103–2113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langen, M., Bos, D., Noordermeer, S. D., Nederveen, H., van Engeland, H., & Durston, S. (2014). Changes in the development of striatum are involved in repetitive behavior in autism. Biological Psychiatry, 76(5), 405–411.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langevin, L. M., MacMaster, F. P., Crawford, S., Lebel, C., & Dewey, D. (2014). Common white matter microstructure alterations in pediatric motor and attention disorders. The Journal of Pediatrics, 164(5), 1157–1164. e1151.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leitner, Y. (2014). The co-occurrence of autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children–what do we know? Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8.

  • Levitt, J. G., Blanton, R. E., Smalley, S., Thompson, P., Guthrie, D., McCracken, J. T., et al. (2003). Cortical sulcal maps in autism. Cerebral Cortex, 13(7), 728–735.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, J. D., Theilmann, R. J., Sereno, M. I., & Townsend, J. (2009). The relation between connection length and degree of connectivity in young adults: a DTI analysis. Cerebral Cortex, 19(3), 554–562.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lim, L., Chantiluke, K., Cubillo, A., Smith, A., Simmons, A., Mehta, M., et al. (2015). Disorder-specific grey matter deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder relative to autism spectrum disorder. Psychological Medicine, 45(05), 965–976.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mackie, S., Shaw, P., Lenroot, R., Pierson, R., Greenstein, D. K., Nugent, T. F., III, et al. (2007). Cerebellar development and clinical outcome in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(4), 647–655.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Makris, N., Kennedy, D. N., McInerney, S., Sorensen, A. G., Wang, R., Caviness, V. S., et al. (2005). Segmentation of subcomponents within the superior longitudinal fascicle in humans: a quantitative, in vivo, DT-MRI study. Cerebral Cortex, 15(6), 854–869.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Makris, N., Biederman, J., Valera, E. M., Bush, G., Kaiser, J., Kennedy, D. N., et al. (2007). Cortical thinning of the attention and executive function networks in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Cerebral Cortex, 17(6), 1364–1375.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Makris, N., Buka, S. L., Biederman, J., Papadimitriou, G. M., Hodge, S. M., Valera, E. M., et al. (2008). Attention and executive systems abnormalities in adults with childhood ADHD: a DT-MRI study of connections. Cerebral Cortex, 18(5), 1210–1220.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manes, F., Piven, J., Vrancic, D., Nanclares, V., Plebst, C., & Starkstein, S. E. (1999). An MRI study of the corpus callosum and cerebellum in mentally retarded autistic individuals. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 11(4), 470–474.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., Mayes, R. D., & Molitoris, S. (2012). Autism and ADHD: overlapping and discriminating symptoms. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(1), 277–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAlonan, G., Daly, E., Kumari, V., Critchley, H. D., van Amelsvoort, T., Suckling, J., et al. (2002). Brain anatomy and sensorimotor gating in Asperger’s syndrome. Brain, 125(7), 1594–1606.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAlonan, G., Cheung, V., Cheung, C., Suckling, J., Lam, G. Y., Tai, K., et al. (2005). Mapping the brain in autism. A voxel-based MRI study of volumetric differences and intercorrelations in autism. Brain, 128(2), 268–276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAlonan, G., Cheung, V., Cheung, C., Chua, S. E., Murphy, D. G., Suckling, J., et al. (2007). Mapping brain structure in attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: a voxel-based MRI study of regional grey and white matter volume. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 154(2), 171–180.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Metzler-Baddeley, C., Jones, D. K., Steventon, J., Westacott, L., Aggleton, J. P., & O’Sullivan, M. J. (2012). Cingulum microstructure predicts cognitive control in older age and mild cognitive impairment. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32(49), 17612–17619.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno-De-Luca, A., Myers, S. M., Challman, T. D., Moreno-De-Luca, D., Evans, D. W., & Ledbetter, D. H. (2013). Developmental brain dysfunction: revival and expansion of old concepts based on new genetic evidence. Lancet Neurology, 12(4), 406–414.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno-De-Luca, D., Moreno-De-Luca, A., Cubells, J. F., & Sanders, S. J. (2014). Cross-disorder comparison of four neuropsychiatric CNV Loci. Current Genetic Medicine Reports, 2(3), 151–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mostofsky, S. H., Reiss, A. L., Lockhart, P., & Denckla, M. B. (1998). Evaluation of cerebellar size in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child Neurology, 13(9), 434–439.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mostofsky, S. H., Cooper, K. L., Kates, W. R., Denckla, M. B., & Kaufmann, W. E. (2002). Smaller prefrontal and premotor volumes in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 52(8), 785–794.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mulligan, A., Anney, R. J., O’Regan, M., Chen, W., Butler, L., Fitzgerald, M., et al. (2009). Autism symptoms in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a familial trait which correlates with conduct, oppositional defiant, language and motor disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(2), 197–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • National Institute of Mental Health (2011). NIMH: Research Domain Criteria (RDoC). http://www.nimh.nih.gov/research-priorities/rdoc/nimh-research-domain-criteria-rdoc.shtml.

  • Nordahl, C. W., Lange, N., Li, D. D., Barnett, L. A., Lee, A., Buonocore, M. H., et al. (2011). Brain enlargement is associated with regression in preschool-age boys with autism spectrum disorders. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(50), 20195–20200.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nordahl, C. W., Scholz, R., Yang, X., Buonocore, M. H., Simon, T., Rogers, S., et al. (2012). Increased rate of amygdala growth in children aged 2 to 4 years with autism spectrum disorders: a longitudinal study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(1), 53–61.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Panizzon, M. S., Fennema-Notestine, C., Eyler, L. T., Jernigan, T. L., Prom-Wormley, E., Neale, M., et al. (2009). Distinct genetic influences on cortical surface area and cortical thickness. Cerebral Cortex, bhp026.

  • Pavuluri, M. N., Yang, S., Kamineni, K., Passarotti, A. M., Srinivasan, G., Harral, E. M., et al. (2009). Diffusion tensor imaging study of white matter fiber tracts in pediatric bipolar disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 65(7), 586–593.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perlov, E., Philipsen, A., van Elst, L. T., Ebert, D., Henning, J., Maier, S., et al. (2008). Hippocampus and amygdala morphology in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 33(6), 509.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pettersson, E., Anckarsäter, H., Gillberg, C., & Lichtenstein, P. (2013). Different neurodevelopmental symptoms have a common genetic etiology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(12), 1356–1365.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plessen, K. J., Bansal, R., Zhu, H., Whiteman, R., Amat, J., Quackenbush, G. A., et al. (2006). Hippocampus and amygdala morphology in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(7), 795–807.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pliszka, S. R., Lancaster, J., Liotti, M., & Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2006). Volumetric MRI differences in treatment-naive vs chronically treated children with ADHD. Neurology, 67(6), 1023–1027.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Proal, E., Reiss, P. T., Klein, R. G., Mannuzza, S., Gotimer, K., Ramos-Olazagasti, M. A., et al. (2011). Brain gray matter deficits at 33-year follow-up in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder established in childhood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(11), 1122–1134.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qiu, A., Crocetti, D., Adler, M., Mahone, E. M., Denckla, M. B., Miller, M. I., et al. (2009). Basal ganglia volume and shape in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

  • Rao, P. A., & Landa, R. J. (2014). Association between severity of behavioral phenotype and comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 18(3), 272–280.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raznahan, A., Toro, R., Daly, E., Robertson, D., Murphy, C., Deeley, Q., et al. (2009). Cortical anatomy in autism spectrum disorder: an in vivo MRI study on the effect of age. Cerebral Cortex, bhp198.

  • Reiersen, A. M., Constantino, J. N., & Todd, R. D. (2008). Co-occurrence of motor problems and autistic symptoms in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(6), 662–672.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rommelse, N. N., Franke, B., Geurts, H. M., Hartman, C. A., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2010). Shared heritability of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 19(3), 281–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rommelse, N. N., Geurts, H. M., Franke, B., Buitelaar, J. K., & Hartman, C. A. (2011). A review on cognitive and brain endophenotypes that may be common in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and facilitate the search for pleiotropic genes. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(6), 1363–1396.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scheel, C., Rotarska-Jagiela, A., Schilbach, L., Lehnhardt, F. G., Krug, B., Vogeley, K., et al. (2011). Imaging derived cortical thickness reduction in high-functioning autism: key regions and temporal slope. NeuroImage, 58(2), 391–400.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schnoebelen, S., Semrud-Clikeman, M., & Pliszka, S. R. (2010). Corpus callosum anatomy in chronically treated and stimulant naive ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 14(3), 256–266.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schumann, C. M., & Amaral, D. G. (2006). Stereological analysis of amygdala neuron number in autism. The Journal of Neuroscience, 26(29), 7674–7679.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schumann, C. M., Barnes, C. C., Lord, C., & Courchesne, E. (2009). Amygdala enlargement in toddlers with autism related to severity of social and communication impairments. Biological Psychiatry, 66(10), 942–949.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schumann, C. M., Bloss, C. S., Barnes, C. C., Wideman, G. M., Carper, R. A., Akshoomoff, N., et al. (2010). Longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study of cortical development through early childhood in autism. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30(12), 4419–4427.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J. A., Schumann, C. M., Goodlin‐Jones, B. L., & Amaral, D. G. (2009). A comprehensive volumetric analysis of the cerebellum in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 2(5), 246–257.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seidman, L. J., Valera, E. M., & Makris, N. (2005). Structural brain imaging of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1263–1272.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seidman, L. J., Biederman, J., Liang, L., Valera, E. M., Monuteaux, M. C., Brown, A., et al. (2011). Gray matter alterations in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder identified by voxel based morphometry. Biological Psychiatry, 69(9), 857–866.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shadmehr, R., & Krakauer, J. W. (2008). A computational neuroanatomy for motor control. Experimental Brain Research, 185(3), 359–381.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shallice, T. (2001). Theory of mind’ and the prefrontal cortex. Brain, 124(2), 247–248.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, P., Eckstrand, K., Sharp, W., Blumenthal, J., Lerch, J., Greenstein, D., et al. (2007). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(49), 19649–19654.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, P., Malek, M., Watson, B., Sharp, W., Evans, A., & Greenstein, D. (2012). Development of cortical surface area and gyrification in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 72(3), 191–197.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shukla, D. K., Keehn, B., Lincoln, A. J., & Müller, R.-A. (2010). White matter compromise of callosal and subcortical fiber tracts in children with autism spectrum disorder: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(12), 1269–1278. e1262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shukla, D. K., Keehn, B., & Müller, R. A. (2011). Tract‐specific analyses of diffusion tensor imaging show widespread white matter compromise in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(3), 286–295.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silk, T. J., Vance, A., Rinehart, N., Bradshaw, J. L., & Cunnington, R. (2009). White‐matter abnormalities in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Human Brain Mapping, 30(9), 2757–2765.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Charman, T., Chandler, S., Loucas, T., & Baird, G. (2008). Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(8), 921–929.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simons VIP Consortium. (2012). Simons Variation in Individuals Project (Simons VIP): a genetics-first approach to studying autism spectrum and related neurodevelopmental disorders. Neuron, 73(6), 1063–1067.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P. M., Welcome, S. E., Henkenius, A. L., Toga, A. W., & Peterson, B. S. (2003). Cortical abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. The Lancet, 362(9397), 1699–1707.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanfield, A. C., McIntosh, A. M., Spencer, M. D., Philip, R., Gaur, S., & Lawrie, S. M. (2008). Towards a neuroanatomy of autism: a systematic review and meta-analysis of structural magnetic resonance imaging studies. European Psychiatry, 23(4), 289–299.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stoodley, C. J., & Schmahmann, J. D. (2010). Evidence for topographic organization in the cerebellum of motor control versus cognitive and affective processing. Cortex, 46(7), 831–844.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi, M., Iwamoto, K., Fukatsu, H., Naganawa, S., Iidaka, T., & Ozaki, N. (2010). White matter microstructure of the cingulum and cerebellar peduncle is related to sustained attention and working memory: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Neuroscience Letters, 477(2), 72–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Valera, E. M., Faraone, S. V., Murray, K. E., & Seidman, L. J. (2007). Meta-analysis of structural imaging findings in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 61(12), 1361–1369.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Meer, J. M., Oerlemans, A. M., van Steijn, D. J., Lappenschaar, M. G., de Sonneville, L. M., Buitelaar, J. K., et al. (2012). Are autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder different manifestations of one overarching disorder? Cognitive and symptom evidence from a clinical and population-based sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(11), 1160–1172. e1163.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Ewijk, H., Heslenfeld, D. J., Zwiers, M. P., Buitelaar, J. K., & Oosterlaan, J. (2012). Diffusion tensor imaging in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(4), 1093–1106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van’t Ent, D., Lehn, H., Derks, E., Hudziak, J., Van Strien, N., Veltman, D., et al. (2007). A structural MRI study in monozygotic twins concordant or discordant for attention/hyperactivity problems: evidence for genetic and environmental heterogeneity in the developing brain. NeuroImage, 35(3), 1004–1020.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vidal, C. N., Nicolson, R., DeVito, T. J., Hayashi, K. M., Geaga, J. A., Drost, D. J., et al. (2006). Mapping corpus callosum deficits in autism: an index of aberrant cortical connectivity. Biological Psychiatry, 60(3), 218–225.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von dem Hagen, E. A., Nummenmaa, L., Yu, R., Engell, A. D., Ewbank, M. P., & Calder, A. J. (2011). Autism spectrum traits in the typical population predict structure and function in the posterior superior temporal sulcus. Cerebral Cortex, 21(3), 493–500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, G. L., Robustelli, B., Dankner, N., Kenworthy, L., Giedd, J. N., & Martin, A. (2013). Increased gyrification, but comparable surface area in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Brain, awt106.

  • Weinstein, M., Ben‐Sira, L., Levy, Y., Zachor, D. A., Itzhak, E. B., Artzi, M., et al. (2011). Abnormal white matter integrity in young children with autism. Human Brain Mapping, 32(4), 534–543.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolosin, S. M., Richardson, M. E., Hennessey, J. G., Denckla, M. B., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2009). Abnormal cerebral cortex structure in children with ADHD. Human Brain Mapping, 30(1), 175–184.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zielinski, B. A., Prigge, M. B., Nielsen, J. A., Froehlich, A. L., Abildskov, T. J., Anderson, J. S., et al. (2014). Longitudinal changes in cortical thickness in autism and typical development. Brain, 137(6), 1799–1812.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zikopoulos, B., & Barbas, H. (2010). Changes in prefrontal axons may disrupt the network in autism. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30(44), 14595–14609.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Autism and Developmental Medicine Institute, Geisinger Health System, 120 Hamm Drive, Lewisburg, PA, 17837, USA

    Chase C. Dougherty, Scott M. Myers, Gregory J. Moore & Andrew M. Michael

  2. Department of Psychology, Bucknell University, 701 Moore Avenue, Lewisburg, PA, 17837, USA

    David W. Evans

  3. Institute for Advanced Application, Geisinger Health System, 100 N Academy Ave, Danville, PA, 17822, USA

    Gregory J. Moore & Andrew M. Michael

  4. Department of Radiology, Geisinger Health System, Danville, PA, 17822, USA

    Gregory J. Moore

Authors
  1. Chase C. Dougherty
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. David W. Evans
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Scott M. Myers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Gregory J. Moore
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Andrew M. Michael
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chase C. Dougherty.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Dougherty, C.C., Evans, D.W., Myers, S.M. et al. A Comparison of Structural Brain Imaging Findings in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Neuropsychol Rev 26, 25–43 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-015-9300-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-015-9300-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation