Abstract
Based within a self-determination theory framework (SDT: Deci and Ryan, Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. Plenum Publishing Co., New York, 1985), the present study examined the effects of manipulating social-contextual conditions on the content of individuals’ self-talk. Seventy student volunteers were randomly assigned to a controlling or autonomy-supportive experimental condition. Participants were instructed to ‘think-aloud’ throughout a 10-min computerized task during which self-verbalizations were recorded. Audio recordings were transcribed verbatim, and then analysed using the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count Program (LIWC; Pennebaker et al., LIWC2001; Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (software and manual). Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, 2001). Inductive content analyses were also conducted. Triangulation of the quantitative and qualitative findings revealed that in the autonomy-supportive condition, individuals’ self-talk was more informational and less controlling, with participants using more positive emotional words and assents, and fewer negative emotional words, swear words, and first person references than in the controlling condition. The findings suggest that social-context can affect cognitive factors such as self-talk and further support the promotion of autonomy-supportive environments.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Amiot, C. E., Gaudreau, P., & Blanchard, C. M. (2004). Self-determination, coping, and goal attainment in sport. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26, 396–411.
Behrend, D., Rosengren, K., & Perlmutter, M. (1989). A new look at the effects of age, task difficulty, and parent’s presence on children’s private speech. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 12, 305–320. doi:10.1016/0163-6383(89)90041-6.
Biddle, S. J. H., Markland, D., Gilbourne, D., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Sparkes, A. C. (2001). Research methods in sport and exercise psychology: Quantitative and qualitative issues. Journal of Sports Sciences, 19, 777–809. doi:10.1080/026404101317015438.
Black, A. E., & Deci, E. L. (2000). The effects of instructors’ autonomy support and students’ autonomous motivation on learning organic chemistry: A self-determination theory perspective. Science Education, 84, 740–756. doi :10.1002/1098-237X(200011)84:6<740::AID-SCE4>3.0.CO;2-3.
Blackwell, R. T., Galassi, J. P., Galassi, M. D., & Watson, T. E. (1985). Are cognitive assessment methods equal? A comparison of think aloud and thought listing. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9(4), 399–413. doi:10.1007/BF01173089.
Brehm, S. S., & Brehm, J. W. (1981). Psychological reactance: A theory of freedom and control. New York: Academic Press.
Burnett, P. C. (1999). Children’s self-talk and academic self-concepts: The impact of teacher’s statements. Educational Psychology in Practice, 15, 195–200. doi:10.1080/0266736990150308.
Burnett, P. C. (2003). The impact of teacher feedback on self-talk and self-concept in reading and mathematics. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 38, 11–16.
Clement, U., & Schonnesson, L. N. (1998). Subjective HIV attribution theories, coping and psychological functioning among homosexual men with HIV. AIDS Care, 10(3), 355–363.
Cloonan, T. F. (1971). Experiential and behavioral aspects of decision-making. In A. Giorgi, W. F. Fisher & R. Von Eckartsberg (Eds.), Duquesne studies in phenomenological psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 112–131). Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press.
Cooper, H., Okamura, L., & McNeil, P. (1995). Situation and personality correlates of psychological wellbeing, social activity, and personal control. Journal of Research in Personality, 29, 395–417. doi:10.1006/jrpe.1995.1023.
Deci, E. L., Eghrari, H., Patrick, B. C., & Leone, D. (1994). Facilitating internalization: The self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Personality, 62, 119–142. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00797.x.
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 627–668. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. New York: Plenum Publishing Co.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Vol 38. Perspectives on motivation (pp. 237–288). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behaviour. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268. doi:10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01.
Depape, A. R., Hakim-Larson, J., Voelker, S., Page, S., & Jackson, D. L. (2006). Self-talk and emotional intelligence in university students. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 38(3), 250–260. doi:10.1037/cjbs2006012.
Diaz, R. M. (1992). Methodological concerns in the study of private speech. In R. M. Diaz & L. E. Berk (Eds.), Private speech: From social interaction to self-regulation (pp. 55–81). UK: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Duncan, R. M., & Cheyne, J. A. (1999). Incidence and functions of self-reported private speech in young adults: A self-verbalization questionnaire. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 31, 133–136. doi:10.1037/h0087081.
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol analysis; verbal reports as data (revised edition). Cambridge, MA: Bradford books/MIT Press.
Fernyhough, C., & Fradley, E. (2005). Private speech on an executive task: Relations with task difficulty and task performance. Cognitive Development, 20(1), 103–120. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2004.11.002.
Gagné, M., Ryan, R. M., & Bargmann, K. (2003). Autonomy support and need satisfaction in the motivation and well-being of gymnasts. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15, 372–390. doi:10.1080/714044203.
Genest, M., & Turk, D. (1981). Think-aloud approaches to cognitive assessment. In T. Merluzzi, C. R. Glass & M. Genest (Eds.), Cognitive assessment (pp. 233–269). New York: The Guilford Press.
Grolnick, W. S., & Ryan, R. M. (1987). Autonomy in children’s learning: An experimental and individual difference investigation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 890–898. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.5.890.
Grolnick, W. S., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1991). The inner resources for school performance: Motivational mediators of children’s perceptions of their parents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 508–517. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.83.4.508.
Hardy, J., Hall, C. R., & Alexander, M. R. (2001). Exploring self-talk and affective states in sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 19, 469–475. doi:10.1080/026404101750238926.
Hardy, J., Hall, C. R., & Hardy, L. (2005). Quantifying athlete self-talk. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23, 905–917. doi:10.1080/02640410500130706.
Hill, C. E., Thompson, B. J., & Williams, E. N. (1997). A guide to conducting consensual qualitative research. The Counseling Psychologist, 24(4), 517–572. doi:10.1177/0011000097254001.
Koestner, R., Ryan, R. M., Bernieri, F., & Holt, K. (1984). Setting limits on children’s behavior: The differential effects of controlling versus informational styles on children’s intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality, 54, 233–248. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1984.tb00879.x.
Lantolf, J. P. (2006). Sociocultural theory and second language learning: State of the art. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28, 67–109. doi:10.1017/S0272263106060037.
Lawrence, J. A., & Valsiner, J. (2003). Making personal sense: An account of basic internalization and externalization processes. Theory & Psychology, 13(6), 723–752. doi:10.1177/0959354303136001.
Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. New York: Sage.
Meichenbaum, D., & Butler, L. (1979). Cognitive ethology: Assessing the streams of cognition and emotion. In K. R. Blankstein, P. Plinker, & J. Polivy (Eds.), Advances in the study of communication and affect. Volume 6: Assessment & modification of emotional behaviour. New York: Plenum Press.
Pennebaker, J. W., Francis, M. E., & Booth, R. (2001). LIWC2001; Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (software and manual). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Peters, H. J., & Williams, J. M. (2006). Moving cultural background to the foreground: An investigation of self-talk, performance, and persistence following feedback. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 18(3), 240–253. doi:10.1080/10413200600830315.
Rassin, E., & Muris, P. (2005). Why do women swear? An exploration of reasons for and perceived efficacy of swearing in Dutch female students. Personality and Individual Differences, 38(7), 1669–1674. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.09.022.
Reeve, J. (2002). Self-determination theory applied to educational settings. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 183–203). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Reeve, J., Bolt, E., & Cai, Y. (1999). Autonomy-supportive teachers: How they teach and motivate students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 537–548. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.537.
Reeve, J., Nix, G., & Hamm, D. (2003). Testing models of the experience of self-determination in intrinsic motivation and the conundrum of choice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 375–392. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.375.
Ryan, R. M. (1982). Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere: An extension of cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 450–461. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.43.3.450.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. The American Psychologist, 55, 68–78. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2006). Self-regulation and the problem of human autonomy: Does psychology need choice, self-determination, and will? Journal of Personality, 74, 1557–1586. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00420.x.
Scanlan, T. K., Stein, G. L., & Ravizza, K. (1989). An in-depth study of former elite figure-skaters: II. Sources of enjoyment. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 11, 65–83.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). New York: Harper Collins.
Tamres, L., Janicki, D., & Helgeson, V. S. (2002). Sex differences in coping behavior: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6, 2–30. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0601_1.
Van Raalte, J. L., Brewer, B. W., Rivera, P. M., & Petitpas, A. J. (1994). The relationship between observable self-talk and competitive junior tennis players’ match performances. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 16, 400–415.
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Soenens, B., & Matos, L. (2005). Examining the motivational impact of intrinsic versus extrinsic goal framing and autonomy-supportive versus internally controlling communication style on early adolescents’ academic achievement. Child Development, 2, 483–501. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00858.x.
Wolters, C. A. (1999). The relation between high school students’ motivational regulation and their use of learning strategies, effort and classroom performance. Learning and Individual Differences. Special Issue: Maintaining the Motivation to Learn, 11(3), 281–299.
Zecevic, A. A., Salmoni, A. W., Speechley, M., & Vandervoort, A. A. (2006). Defining a fall and reasons for falling: Comparisons among the views of seniors, health care providers, and the research literature. The Gerontologist, 46, 367–376.
Zourbanos, N., Theodorakis, Y., & Hatzigeoriadis, A. (2006). Coaches’ behaviour, social support and athletes’ self-talk. Hellenic Journal of Psychology. Special Issue: Self-Talk in Sport Psychology, 3(2), 150–163.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Oliver, E.J., Markland, D., Hardy, J. et al. The effects of autonomy-supportive versus controlling environments on self-talk. Motiv Emot 32, 200–212 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-008-9097-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-008-9097-x