Introduction
Developmental Trajectories of Conduct Problems
Timing and Duration of Cumulative Risk
Cumulative risk
Timing and Persistence of Risk
Current Study
Method
Study Sample
Measures
Conduct problems
Time-invariant covariates
Trajectory group | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Low | Adolescent-onset | Childhood-limited | Persistent | |||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | F-Test | |
Covariates
| |||||||||
Male | 0.49a | (0.49) | 0.54b | (0.51) | 0.54b | (0.51) | 0.63c | (0.50) | F(3,16,534) = 29.32*** |
Ethnic minority | 0.10a | (0.30) | 0.10a | (0.30) | 0.12a | (0.33) | 0.06b | (0.25) | F(3,16,494) = 9.88*** |
Maternal smoking in pregnancy | 0.18a | (0.38) | 0.32b | (0.47) | 0.32b | (0.47) | 0.48c | (0.52) | F(3,16,532) = 138.81** |
Teenage mother | 0.05a | (0.22) | 0.10b | (0.30) | 0.10b | (0.30) | 0.15c | (0.36) | F(3,17,204) = 61.79*** |
Low birth weight | 0.06 | (0.24) | 0.09 | (0.29) | 0.06 | (0.24) | 0.09 | (0.29) | F(3,17,204) = 5.58*** |
Child Factors
| |||||||||
SDQ emotional problems | |||||||||
Age 3 years | 0.04a | (0.21) | 0.12b | (0.33) | 0.16c | (0.38) | 0.20d | (0.41) | F(3,14,732) = 204.25*** |
Age 5 years | 0.07a | (0.24) | 0.11b | (0.32) | 0.17c | (0.38) | 0.30d | (0.48) | F(3,14,719) = 229.10*** |
Age 7 years | 0.08a | (0.27) | 0.16b | (0.38) | 0.21b | (0.42) | 0.38c | (0.50) | F(3,13,437) = 284.90*** |
Age 11 years | 0.07a | (0.25) | 0.25b | (0.44) | 0.13c | (0.34) | 0.36d | (0.50) | F(3,12,792) = 320.46*** |
Age 14 years | 0.08a | (0.27) | 0.31b | (0.48) | 0.16c | (0.38) | 0.36d | (0.49) | F(3,11,320) = 258.15*** |
SDQ peer problems | |||||||||
Age 3 years | 0.08a | (0.27) | 0.14b | (0.35) | 0.20c | (0.41) | 0.23c | (0.44) | F(3,14,633) = 136.19*** |
Age 5 years | 0.05a | (0.21) | 0.09b | (0.28) | 0.12c | (0.33) | 0.22d | (0.43) | F(3,14,708) = 177.21*** |
Age 7 years | 0.05a | (0.22) | 0.13b | (0.34) | 0.15b | (0.36) | 0.31c | (0.48) | F(3,13,446) = 279.31*** |
Age 11 years | 0.07a | (0.25) | 0.24b | (0.44) | 0.14c | (0.35) | 0.36d | (0.50) | F(3,12,796) = 310.35*** |
Age 14 years | 0.10a | (0.29) | 0.35b | (0.49) | 0.17c | (0.39) | 0.46d | (0.51) | F(3,11,325) = 324.23*** |
SDQ hyperactivity | |||||||||
Age 3 years | 0.08a | (0.27) | 0.20b | (0.41) | 0.29c | (0.47) | 0.42d | (0.51) | F(3,14,622) = 502.87*** |
Age 5 years | 0.05a | (0.20) | 0.12b | (0.33) | 0.20c | (0.41) | 0.47d | (0.52) | F(3,14,653) = 736.83*** |
Age 7 years | 0.06a | (0.24) | 0.19b | (0.40) | 0.22b | (0.43) | 0.51c | (0.52) | F(3,13,416) = 688.69*** |
Age 11 years | 0.05a | (0.21) | 0.29b | (0.46) | 0.12c | (0.34) | 0.44d | (0.52) | F(3,12,765) = 665.09*** |
Age 14 years | 0.04a | (0.19) | 0.28b | (0.47) | 0.10c | (0.31) | 0.42d | (0.51) | F(3,11,315) = 637.79*** |
Low verbal cognitive ability | |||||||||
Age 3 years | 0.04a | (0.19) | 0.07b | (0.27) | 0.07b | (0.27) | 0.08b | (0.28) | F(3,14,502) = 16.94*** |
Age 5 years | 0.04a | (0.20) | 0.08b | (0.27) | 0.07b | (0.27) | 0.09b | (0.29) | F(3,14,909) = 22.01*** |
Age 7 years | 0.03a | (0.17) | 0.09b | (0.27) | 0.08b | (0.27) | 0.17c | (0.35) | F(3,13,386) = 127.36*** |
Age 11 years | 0.04a | (0.19) | 0.09b | (0.29) | 0.07b | (0.37) | 0.14c | (0.36) | F(3,12,968) = 64.62*** |
Age 14 years | 0.05a | (0.21) | 0.10b | (0.31) | 0.08b | (0.28) | 0.12c | (0.34) | F(3,10,768) = 33.95*** |
Family Factors
| |||||||||
Non-intact families | |||||||||
Age 9 months | 0.11a | (0.31) | 0.17b | (0.38) | 0.19b | (0.40) | 0.29c | (0.47) | F(3,16,532) = 105.67*** |
Age 3 years | 0.14a | (0.34) | 0.26b | (0.45) | 0.26b | (0.45) | 0.39c | (0.50) | F(3,15,470) = 170.80*** |
Age 5 years | 0.19a | (0.39) | 0.33b | (0.48) | 0.30b | (0.47) | 0.42c | (0.51) | F(3,15,184) = 145.39*** |
Age 7 years | 0.21a | (0.40) | 0.36b | (0.49) | 0.34b | (0.49) | 0.47c | (0.52) | F(3,13,833) = 142.74*** |
Age 11 years | 0.28a | (0.44) | 0.47b | (0.51) | 0.39c | (0.50) | 0.58d | (0.51) | F(3,13,263) = 151.29*** |
Age 14 years | 0.30a | (0.45) | 0.51b | (0.51) | 0.40c | (0.50) | 0.61d | (0.51) | F(3,11,701) = 131.52*** |
Large family (>3 children) | |||||||||
Age 9 months | 0.20a | (0.40) | 0.23a,b | (0.43) | 0.24b | (0.44) | 0.26b | (0.45) | F(3,16,532) = 9.86*** |
Age 3 years | 0.26a | (0.43) | 0.30b | (0.47) | 0.32b | (0.48) | 0.31b | (0.48) | F(3,15,473) = 11.96*** |
Age 5 years | 0.33a | (0.46) | 0.38b | (0.49) | 0.39b | (0.50) | 0.43b | (0.51) | F(3,15,184) = 18.18*** |
Age 7 years | 0.38a | (0.48) | 0.44b | (0.51) | 0.44b | (0.51) | 0.51b | (0.52) | F(3,13,832) = 23.13*** |
Age 11 years | 0.39a | (0.48) | 0.48b | (0.51) | 0.46b | (0.51) | 0.53b | (0.52) | F(3,13,260) = 27.60*** |
Age 14 years | 0.36a | (0.47) | 0.46b | (0.51) | 0.42b | (0.51) | 0.50b | (0.51) | F(3,11,701) = 22.30*** |
Parental depressive symptoms | |||||||||
Age 3 years | 0.02a | (0.15) | 0.07b | (0.26) | 0.07b | (0.26) | 0.12c | (0.34) | F(3,14,435) = 115.31*** |
Age 5 years | 0.03a | (0.16) | 0.08b | (0.27) | 0.07b | (0.27) | 0.13c | 0(.35) | F(3,14,570) = 109.77*** |
Age 7 years | 0.03a | (0.16) | 0.08b | (0.29) | 0.07b | (0.27) | 0.14c | (0.36) | F(3,13,361) = 107.46*** |
Age 11 years | 0.01a | (0.12) | 0.06b | (0.24) | 0.05b | (0.22) | 0.10c | (0.32) | F(3,12,675) = 83.29*** |
Age 14 years | 0.01a | (0.12) | 0.05b,c | (0.23) | 0.04b | (0.21) | 0.08c | (0.28) | F(3,11,109) = 40.82*** |
Parental poor health | |||||||||
Age 9 months | 0.03a | (0.17) | 0.07b | (0.26) | 0.06b | (0.24) | 0.09b | (0.29) | F(3,16,526) = 37.60*** |
Age 3 years | 0.03a | (0.16) | 0.06b | (0.24) | 0.06b | (0.24) | 0.09c | (0.30) | F(3,15,418) = 40.23*** |
Age 5 years | 0.03a | (0.17) | 0.08c | (0.27) | 0.06b | (0.24) | 0.08c | (0.28) | F(3,15,138) = 31.48*** |
Age 7 years | 0.03a | (0.17) | 0.07b | (0.26) | 0.06b | (0.24) | 0.08b | (0.28) | F(3,13,782) = 23.30*** |
Age 11 years | 0.02a | (0.14) | 0.08b | (0.27) | 0.06b | (0.24) | 0.12c | (0.34) | F(3,13,197) = 24.23*** |
Age 14 years | 0.02a | (0.14) | 0.06b | (0.25) | 0.05b | (0.22) | 0.09b | (0.30) | F(3,11,959) = 43.99*** |
Socio-economic Factors
| |||||||||
Lowest income quintile | |||||||||
Age 9 months | 0.14a | (0.34) | 0.27b | (0.45) | 0.25b | (0.45) | 0.39c | (0.50) | F(3,16,477) = 187.54*** |
Age 3 years | 0.13a | (0.33) | 0.23b | (0.43) | 0.27b | (0.46) | 0.38c | (0.50) | F(3,15,322) = 208.35*** |
Age 5 years | 0.14a | (0.34) | 0.25b | (0.44) | 0.24b | (0.44) | 0.36c | (0.50) | F(3,15,090) = 136.95*** |
Age 7 years | 0.12a | (0.32) | 0.22b | (0.42) | 0.23b | (0.43) | 0.32c | (0.48) | F(3,13,815) = 122.20*** |
Age 11 years | 0.09a | (0.22) | 0.22b | (0.43) | 0.19b | (0.40) | 0.33c | (0.49) | F(3,13,260) = 185.08*** |
Age 14 years | 0.07a | (0.26) | 0.20b | (0.41) | 0.18b | (0.40) | 0.31c | (0.48) | F(3,11,698) = 160.79*** |
Worklessness | |||||||||
Age 9 months | 0.12a | (0.32) | 0.25b | (0.44) | 0.23b | (0.43) | 0.35c | (0.50) | F(3,16,529) = 197.34*** |
Age 3 years | 0.10a | (0.30) | 0.21b | (0.42) | 0.24b | (0.44) | 0.37c | (0.50) | F(3,15,384) = 253.23*** |
Age 5 years | 0.11a | (0.31) | 0.21b | (0.41) | 0.21b | (0.42) | 0.35c | (0.49) | F(3,15,180) = 184.86*** |
Age 7 years | 0.09a | (0.28) | 0.21b | (0.42) | 0.19b | (0.41) | 0.34c | (0.49) | F(3,13,830) = 199.20*** |
Age 11 years | 0.09a | (0.28) | 0.22b | (0.42) | 0.17c | (0.39) | 0.35d | (0.49) | F(3,13,260) = 186.23*** |
Age 14 years | 0.07a | (0.25) | 0.18b | (0.40) | 0.13c | (0.35) | 0.31d | (0.48) | F(3,11,698) = 180.68*** |
Low qualifications | |||||||||
Age 9 months | 0.15a | (0.35) | 0.27b.c | (0.44) | 0.23b | (0.43) | 0.29c | (0.47) | F(3,14,802) = 73.67*** |
Age 3 years | 0.14a | (0.35) | 0.27b,c | (0.45) | 0.22b | (0.43) | 0.28c | (0.47) | F(3,14,097) = 72.86*** |
Age 5 years | 0.14a | (0.34) | 0.27b,c | (0.44) | 0.22b | (0.42) | 0.28c | (0.46) | F(3,13,895) = 66.84*** |
Age 7 years | 0.13a | (0.33) | 0.24b,c | (0.43) | 0.20b | (0.41) | 0.27c | (0.46) | F(3,12,820) = 65.62*** |
Age 11 years | 0.12a | (0.32) | 0.22b,c | (0.42) | 0.19c | (0.41) | 0.24b | (0.44) | F(3,12,353) = 55.44*** |
Age 14 years | 0.11a | (0.31) | 0.21b,c | (0.41) | 0.18b | (0.40) | 0.20c | (0.41) | F(3,11,003) = 42.42*** |
Social housing | |||||||||
Age 9 months | 0.17a | (0.37) | 0.33b | (0.48) | 0.30b | (0.47) | 0.46c | (0.51) | F(3,16,492) = 202.30*** |
Age 3 years | 0.16a | (0.36) | 0.31b | (0.46) | 0.32b | (0.46) | 0.47c | (0.51) | F(3,15,366) = 243.54*** |
Age 5 years | 0.16a | (0.36) | 0.31b | (0.47) | 0.29b | (0.47) | 0.46c | (0.51) | F(3,15,109) = 211.20*** |
Age 7 years | 0.14a | (0.35) | 0.28b | (0.46) | 0.29b | (0.47) | 0.45c | (0.51) | F(3,13,703) = 197.10*** |
Age 11 years | 0.14a | (0.34) | 0.29b | (0.47) | 0.27b | (0.46) | 0.42c | (0.51) | F(3,13,304) = 184.66*** |
Age 14 years | 0.12a | (0.33) | 0.27b | (0.46) | 0.25b | (0.45) | 0.39c | (0.50) | F(3,11,466) = 145.50*** |
Cumulative Risk Scores
| |||||||||
Child risk | |||||||||
Age 3 years | 0.24a | (0.52) | 0.51b | (0.78) | 0.68c | (0.86) | 0.90d | (0.96) | F(3,13,681) = 534.32*** |
Age 5 years | 0.19a | (0.47) | 0.39b | (0.69) | 0.53c | (0.80) | 1.04d | (1.01) | F(3,14,377) = 698.81*** |
Age 7 years | 0.22a | (0.53) | 0.55b | (0.81) | 0.62b | (0.93) | 1.34c | (1.04) | F(3,12,969) = 900.07*** |
Age 11 years | 0.21a | (0.53) | 0.82b | (1.02) | 0.44c | (0.77) | 1.30d | (1.15) | F(3,12,448) = 839.95*** |
Age 14 years | 0.26a | (0.56) | 1.01b | (1.07) | 0.50c | (0.80) | 1.31d | (1.13) | F(310,467) = 654.68*** |
Family risk | |||||||||
Age 9 months | 0.34a | (0.53) | 0.47b | (0.62) | 0.49b | (0.64) | 0.64c | (0.72) | F(3,16,526) = 112.35*** |
Age 3 years | 0.43a | (0.60) | 0.67b | (0.73) | 0.68b | (0.75) | 0.89c | (0.88) | F(3,13,578) = 202.12*** |
Age 5 years | 0.56a | (0.65) | 0.85b | (0.80) | 0.81b | (0.80) | 1.06c | (0.90) | F(3,14,325) = 218.04*** |
Age 7 years | 0.64a | (0.68) | 0.95b | (0.83) | 0.90b | (0.82) | 1.20c | (0.88) | F(3,13,157) = 214.77*** |
Age 11 years | 0.72a | (0.71) | 1.09b | (0.81) | 0.97c | (0.80) | 1.32d | (0.91) | F(3,12,369) = 216.74*** |
Age 14 years | 0.71a | (0.72) | 1.12b | (0.85) | 0.94c | (0.84) | 1.32d | (0.92) | F(3,10,911) = 180.46*** |
Socio-economic risk | |||||||||
Age 9 months | 0.50a | (0.89) | 1.01b | (1.22) | 0.87c | (1.18) | 1.27d | (1.31) | F(3,14,772) = 243.22*** |
Age 3 years | 0.47a | (0.86) | 0.92b | (1.19) | 0.92b | (1.23) | 1.28c | (1.33) | F(3,13,913) = 289.17*** |
Age 5 years | 0.48a | (0.87) | 0.95b | (1.18) | 0.83b | (1.16) | 1.25c | (1.31) | F(3,13,824) = 234.37*** |
Age 7 years | 0.43a | (0.81) | 0.87b | (1.15) | 0.81b | (1.15) | 1.21c | (1.27) | F(3,12,710) = 240.68*** |
Age 11 years | 0.38a | (0.79) | 0.88b | (1.17) | 0.73c | (1.10) | 1.19d | (1.33) | F(3,12,160) = 244.34*** |
Age 14 years | 0.34a | (0.71) | 0.78b | (1.04) | 0.66c | (1.06) | 1.06d | (1.28) | F(3,10,816) = 211.48*** |
Child risk factors
Family risk factors
Socio-economic risk factors
Statistical Analyses
Adolescent-onset | Childhood-limited | Persistent | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
RRR
|
CI
|
RRR
|
CI
|
RRR
|
CI
| |
Model 1 (N = 14,749) | ||||||
Age 9 months
| ||||||
Male | 1.29** | (1.10, 1.51) | 1.26*** | (1.13, 1.41) | 1.93*** | (1.61, 2.31) |
Ethnic minority | 0.78* | (0.60, 0.99) | 1.07 | (0.90, 1.27) | 0.54*** | (0.40, 0.74) |
Low birth weight | 1.41* | (1.04, 1.90) | 0.82 | (0.64, 1.05) | 1.24 | (0.91, 1.71) |
Teenage mother | 1.16 | (0.87, 1.55) | 1.45*** | (1.18, 1.79) | 1.34* | (1.00, 1.81) |
Smoking in pregnancy | 1.58*** | (1.30, 1.90) | 1.73*** | (1.52, 1.97) | 2.43*** | (2.00, 2.95) |
Family risk | 1.03 | (0.88, 1.20) | 1.12* | (1.01, 1.25) | 1.21* | (1.03, 1.41) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.49*** | (1.37, 1.60) | 1.26*** | (1.19, 1.34) | 1.59*** | (1.46, 1.72) |
Model 2 (N = 11,247) | ||||||
Age 9 months
| ||||||
Male | 1.26* | (1.11, 1.52) | 1.16* | (1.03, 1.33) | 1.83*** | (1.49, 2.30) |
Ethnic minority | 0.57** | (0.38, 0.79) | 0.90 | (0.70, 1.09) | 0.42*** | (0.27, 0.67) |
Low birth weight | 1.37 | (1.00, 2.06) | 0.60** | (0.45, 0.87) | 0.77 | (0.53, 1.30) |
Teenage mother | 1.12 | (0.80, 1.62) | 1.50*** | (1.20, 1.97) | 1.24 | (0.90, 1.87) |
Smoking in pregnancy | 1.43** | (1.14, 1.80) | 1.54*** | (1.33, 1.80) | 2.35*** | (1.85, 2.99) |
Family risk | 0.84 | (0.68, 1.08) | 0.90 | (0.77, 1.07) | 0.89 | (0.70, 1.16) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.33*** | (1.18, 1.57) | 1.01 | (0.94, 1.14) | 1.17* | (1.01, 1.36) |
Age 3 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 1.33** | (1.12, 1.63) | 1.32*** | (1.16, 1.52) | 1.55*** | (1.25, 1.93) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.07 | (0.94, 1.28) | 1.25*** | (1.16, 1.40) | 1.30*** | (1.13, 1.49) |
Child risk | 1.88*** | (1.63, 2.19) | 2.47*** | (2.25, 2.74) | 3.08*** | (2.68, 3.52) |
Model 3 (N = 9,889) | ||||||
Age 9 months
| ||||||
Male | 1.24* | (1.02, 1.50) | 1.12 | (0.97, 1.28) | 1.67*** | (1.33, 2.14) |
Ethnic minority | 0.52** | (0.34, 0.79) | 0.85 | (0.63, 1.13) | 0.42*** | (0.22, 0.61) |
Low birth weight | 1.40 | (0.95, 2.06) | 0.60** | (0.42, 0.85) | 0.72 | (0.44, 1.16) |
Teenage mother | 1.18 | (0.81, 1.72) | 1.55** | (1.17, 2.04) | 1.11 | (0.74, 1.76) |
Smoking in pregnancy | 1.45** | (1.15, 1.83) | 1.63*** | (1.38, 1.93) | 2.58*** | (1.99, 3.35) |
Family risk | 0.77* | (0.60, 0.98) | 0.90 | (0.75, 1.08) | 0.86 | (0.67, 1.16) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.30** | (1.10, 1.54) | 0.99 | (0.88, 1.10) | 1.09 | (0.95, 1.35) |
Age 3 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 1.02 | (0.80, 1.29) | 1.12 | (0.94, 1.35) | 1.16 | (0.90, 1.54) |
Socio-economic risk | 0.95 | (0.79, 1.14) | 1.23** | (1.08, 1.41) | 1.21 | (1.00, 1.43) |
Child risk | 1.70*** | (1.45, 2.00) | 2.03*** | (1.82, 2.27) | 2.17*** | (1.86, 2.59) |
Age 5 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 1.54*** | (1.27, 1.87) | 1.21* | (1.05, 1.42) | 1.40** | (1.11, 1.75) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.14 | (0.96, 1.35) | 0.98 | (0.87, 1.12) | 1.11 | (0.96, 1.39) |
Child risk | 1.50*** | (1.25, 1.80) | 2.02*** | (1.77, 2.30) | 3.46*** | (2.96, 4.06) |
Model 4 (N = 8,537) | ||||||
Age 9 months
| ||||||
Male | 1.22* | (1.00, 1.50) | 1.10 | (0.94, 1.28) | 1.49** | (1.15, 1.95) |
Ethnic minority | 0.50** | (0.31, 0.82) | 1.00 | (0.73, 1.37) | 0.49* | (0.25, 0.76) |
Low birth weight | 1.24 | (0.81, 1.90) | 0.50*** | (0.33, 0.75) | 0.47* | (0.28, 0.89) |
Teenage mother | 1.01 | (0.65, 1.57) | 1.49* | (1.08, 2.04) | 1.03 | (0.62, 1.73) |
Smoking in pregnancy | 1.38** | (1.07, 1.78) | 1.55*** | (1.29, 1.86) | 2.64*** | (1.97, 3.53) |
Family risk | 0.72* | (0.55, 0.93) | 0.90 | (0.73, 1.10) | 0.72* | (0.54, 0.98) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.37*** | (1.14, 1.65) | 0.94 | (0.82, 1.07) | 1.11 | (0.93, 1.40) |
Age 3 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 0.97 | (0.74, 1.25) | 1.10 | (0.90, 1.34) | 1.22 | (0.90, 1.65) |
Socio-economic risk | 0.86 | (0.71, 1.05) | 1.23** | (1.05, 1.43) | 1.14 | (0.91, 1.44) |
Child risk | 1.54*** | (1.29, 1.83) | 1.82*** | (1.60, 2.06) | 1.84*** | (1.54, 2.24) |
Age 5 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 1.34* | (1.04, 1.74) | 1.09 | (0.90, 1.33) | 1.10 | (0.80, 1.49) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.10 | (0.89, 1.35) | 0.88 | (0.75, 1.03) | 0.96 | (0.79, 1.32) |
Child risk | 1.31** | (1.07, 1.61) | 1.67*** | (1.44, 1.95) | 2.05*** | (1.68, 2.49) |
Age 7 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 1.28* | (1.02, 1.60) | 1.12 | (0.95, 1.32) | 1.29* | (1.01, 1.64) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.04 | (0.86, 1.27) | 1.19* | (1.03, 1.38) | 1.17 | (0.95, 1.50) |
Child risk | 1.56*** | (1.33, 1.83) | 1.69*** | (1.49, 1.92) | 2.88*** | (2.47, 3.42) |
Model 5 (N = 7,401) | ||||||
Age 9 months
| ||||||
Male | 1.30* | (1.04, 1.61) | 1.06 | (0.90, 1.25) | 1.61*** | (1.21, 2.15) |
Ethnic minority | 0.54* | (0.32, 0.90) | 1.00 | (0.70, 1.42) | 0.42** | (0.22, 0.80) |
Low birth weight | 1.26 | (0.81, 1.96) | 0.51** | (0.33, 0.79) | 0.51* | (0.28, 0.92) |
Teenage mother | 1.03 | (0.63, 1.68) | 1.63** | (1.14, 2.33) | 1.11 | (0.65, 1.89) |
Smoking in pregnancy | 1.43* | (1.09, 1.87) | 1.62*** | (1.33, 1.98) | 2.65*** | (1.92, 3.65) |
Family risk | 0.76 | (0.58, 1.01) | 0.93 | (0.74, 1.16) | 0.83 | (0.59, 1.16) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.41*** | (1.16, 1.72) | 0.95 | (0.82, 1.11) | 1.02 | (0.82, 1.27) |
Age 3 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 0.96 | (0.72, 1.28) | 1.13 | (0.90, 1.43) | 1.07 | (0.76, 1.50) |
Socio-economic risk | 0.79 | (0.64, 0.98) | 1.11 | (0.93, 1.32) | 1.18 | (0.92, 1.52) |
Child risk | 1.49*** | (1.23, 1.81) | 1.93*** | (1.68, 2.21) | 1.75*** | (1.42, 2.16) |
Age 5 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 1.26 | (0.95, 1.66) | 1.00 | (0.81, 1.24) | 1.01 | (0.72, 1.42) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.17 | (0.94, 1.46) | 0.94 | (0.78, 1.12) | 1.11 | (0.85, 1.46) |
Child risk | 1.04 | (0.83, 1.30) | 1.55*** | (1.31, 1.84) | 1.75*** | (1.41, 2.18) |
Age 7 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 1.06 | (0.80, 1.40) | 1.19 | (0.97, 1.47) | 1.02 | (0.75, 1.39) |
Socio-economic risk | 0.92 | (0.73, 1.18) | 1.14 | (0.95, 1.38) | 0.92 | (0.70, 1.20) |
Child risk | 1.15 | (0.95, 1.39) | 1.65*** | (1.43, 1.91) | 2.12*** | (1.75, 2.56) |
Age 11 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 1.33* | (1.06, 1.67) | 1.02 | (0.86, 1.21) | 1.48** | (1.14, 1.92) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.21 | (0.97, 1.52) | 1.09 | (0.93, 1.28) | 1.34* | (1.06, 1.68) |
Child risk | 2.33*** | (2.00, 2.71) | 1.14 | (0.98, 1.31) | 2.18*** | (1.83, 2.59) |
Model 6 (N = 5,912) | ||||||
Age 9 months
| ||||||
Male | 1.55*** | (1.21, 1.99) | 1.06 | (0.88, 1.28) | 1.74*** | (1.25, 2.41) |
Ethnic minority | 0.61 | (0.35, 1.09) | 1.02 | (0.69, 1.50) | 0.42* | (0.19, 0.94) |
Low birth weight | 1.48 | (0.88, 2.49) | 0.53* | (0.32, 0.86) | 0.52 | (0.25, 1.08) |
Teenage mother | 1.08 | (0.59, 1.96) | 1.51 | (0.99, 2.30) | 1.14 | (0.60, 2.17) |
Smoking in pregnancy | 1.38* | (1.00, 1.90) | 1.68*** | (1.33, 2.12) | 2.02*** | (1.37, 2.98) |
Family risk | 0.78 | (0.57, 1.07) | 1.02 | (0.78, 1.31) | 0.89 | (0.61, 1.30) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.43* | (1.13, 1.80) | 0.91 | (0.77, 1.09) | 1.15 | (0.89, 1.47) |
Age 3 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 1.02 | (0.74, 1.41) | 1.11 | (0.85, 1.45) | 0.93 | (0.63, 1.38) |
Socio-economic risk | 0.73* | (0.56, 0.94) | 1.18 | (0.96, 1.45) | 1.20 | (0.89, 1.61) |
Child risk | 1.44** | (1.14, 1.80) | 1.93*** | (1.66, 2.25) | 1.68*** | (1.30, 2.17) |
Age 5 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 1.17 | (0.84, 1.62) | 0.98 | (0.76, 1.25) | 1.01 | (0.70, 1.47) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.12 | (0.86, 1.45) | 0.88 | (0.71, 1.09) | 1.08 | (0.78, 1.49) |
Child risk | 0.93 | (0.72, 1.22) | 1.55*** | (1.28, 1.87) | 1.72*** | (1.33, 2.21) |
Age 7 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 0.96 | (0.69, 1.34) | 1.24 | (0.97, 1.58) | 1.02 | (0.72, 1.44) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.04 | (0.78, 1.37) | 1.11 | (0.90, 1.36) | 0.94 | (0.68, 1.28) |
Child risk | 0.96 | (0.77, 1.20) | 1.49*** | (1.26, 1.78) | 1.90*** | (1.51, 2.40) |
Age 11 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 1.28 | (0.92, 1.79) | 0.92 | (0.72, 1.18) | 1.25 | (0.86, 1.82) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.07 | (0.79, 1.44) | 0.99 | (0.78, 1.25) | 1.16 | (0.82, 1.63) |
Child risk | 1.64*** | (1.34, 2.01) | 1.15 | (0.97, 1.37) | 1.87*** | (1.49, 2.34) |
Age 14 years
| ||||||
Family risk | 1.15 | (0.87, 1.52) | 1.06 | (0.85, 1.33) | 1.32 | (0.95, 1.84) |
Socio-economic risk | 1.13 | (0.85, 1.50) | 1.24 | (0.99, 1.57) | 1.00 | (0.70, 1.39) |
Child risk | 2.36*** | (1.99, 2.80) | 1.13 | (0.96, 1.32) | 1.82*** | (1.48, 2.24) |